Structure, properties and

functions of DNA and RNA

 Introduction

– Each cell of our bodies contains thousands of different proteins.

– How do cells know which proteins to synthesize out of the extremely

large number of possible amino acid sequences?

– the transmission of hereditary information took place in the nucleus,

more specifically in structures called chromosomes.

– The hereditary information was thought to reside in genes within the

chromosomes.

– Chemical analysis of nuclei showed chromosomes are made up

largely of proteins called histones and nucleic acids.
 Nucleic acids

Backbones of chromosomes

Ribonucleic acids (RNA)

Nucleic acids

Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)

 Nucleic acids

DNA stores the genetic information of an organism and transmits

that information from one generation to another.

RNA translates the genetic information contained in DNA into proteins

needed for all cellular function.

RNA and DNA are unbranched polymers (monomers: nucleotides).

 Nucleotide

A nucleotide is composed of:

• Nitrogen-containing bases (amines)

• Sugars (monosaccharides)
• Phosphate

Phosphate
 Bases

N H2 O O
4
CH3
3 N 5 N HN HN
2 6
N O N O N O N
1
H H H
Pyrimidine Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)
(DNA and (DNA only) (in RNA only)
some RNA)

6 7 N H2 O
1
N
5 N N N
8
N HN
2
N 4 N9 N N N N
3
H2 N
H H H
Purine Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
(DNA and RNA) (DNA and RNA)
 Sugars (monosaccharide)

RNA contains:
• D-Ribose sugar

DNA contains:
• 2-Deoxy-D-Ribose sugar (without O on carbon 2)
 Nucleoside

When a N atom of the base forms a glycosidic bond to C 1’ (anomeric C) of

a sugar.

Base + Sugar Nucleoside

O O
uracil O
CH3
HN
HN
N O N -D-riboside 1
H H 5' O N a -N-glycosidic
HOCH2 O bond
hymine (T) Uracil (U) 1'
ß-N-glycosidic bond

NA only) (in RNA only) 4' H H

H 3' 2' H anomeric
HO OH carbon

O
Uridine

HN N
 Primary structure of DNA and RNA
Polynucleotide
Carry all information
for protein synthesis.

Phosphodiester
bond

Sequence of nucleotides.

Each phosphate is linked to C3’ and C5’ of two sugars.

 Secondary structure of DNA

• The DNA model is proposed by Watson 5’ 3’

and Crick in 1953.

• Two strands of polynucleotide form a

double helix structure like a spiral.
Sugar phosphate
backbone
3D structure

• Hydrogen bonds link paired bases:

Adenine-Thymine (A–T)
Guanine-Cytosine (G-C)

• Sugar-Phosphate backbone is
hydrophilic and stays on the outside
(bases are hydrophobic).

5’
3’
 Higher structure of DNA
• DNA is coiled around proteins called histones.

• Histones are rich in the basic amino acids

• Acidic DNA basic histones attract each other and form a

chain of nucleosomes.

Core of eight histones

 Chromosome & Gene

- DNA is contained in the chromosomes of the nucleus, each

chromosome having a different type of DNA.

- Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), each made up of many

genes.

- A gene is the portion of the DNA molecule responsible for the

synthesis of a single protein (1000 to 2000 nucleotides).
 Three Main Types of RNA

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) - Carries copies of

instructions for the assembly of amino acids into
proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell (serve as
“messenger”)
 2.Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – Makes up the major part of
ribosomes, where proteins are made.

Ribosomal
RNA
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) - Transfers amino acids to
ribosomes during protein synthesis
 Functions of DNA

1. It reproduces itself when a cell divides (Replication).

2. It supplied the information to make up RNA, proteins, and enzymes.

 Functions of RNA

RNA transfer genetic information form nucleus (DNA) to

cells (proteins) for use.

Make up ribosomes

Helps to assemble proteins.

 Replication

Separation of the two original strands and synthesis

of two new daughter strands using the original strands as templates.

By breaking H-bonds
 Replication

Replication is bidirectional: takes place at the same speed in both directions.

Replication is semiconservative: each daughter molecule has one parental strand

and one newly synthesized one.

Origin of replication: specific point of DNA where replication begins.

Replication fork: specific point of DNA where replication is proceeding.

Replication occurs at many places simultaneously along the helix.

 Replication

Leading strand: is synthesized continuously in the 5’  3’ direction

toward the replication fork.

Lagging strand: is synthesized discontinuously in the 5’  3’ direction

away from the replication fork.
 Replication

Replisomes: assemblies of “enzyme factories”.

Component Function
Helicase Unwinds the DNA double helix
Primase Synthesizes primers
Clamp protein Threads leading strand
DNA polymerase Joins assembled nucleotides
Ligase Joins Okazaki fragments in
lagging strand
 Protein Synthesis

Gene expression: activation of a gene to produce a specific protein.

Only a small fraction (1-2%) of the DNA in a chromosome contains genes.

Change of sequence New protein

 Gene expression

Transcription: synthesis of mRNA (messenger RNA)

Translation

DNA RNA
replication replication

DNA Transcription mRNA Translation protein

Reverse
Reversetranscriptase
transcription
 Transcription

Genetic information is copied from a gene in DNA to make a mRNA.

Begins when the section of a DNA that contains the gene to be copied unwinds.

Polymerase enzyme identifies a starting point to begin mRNA synthesis.

 Transcription

C is paired with G, T pairs with A

But A pairs with U (not T).

Polymerase enzyme moves along the unwound DNA,

forming bonds between the bases.

RNA Polymerase

Section of bases on DNA (template strand): -G–A–A–C–T-

Complementary base sequence in mRNA: -C–U–U–G–A-

 Translation

mRNA (as a carrier molecule) moves out of the nucleus and goes to ribosomes.

tRNA converts the information into amino acids.

Amino acids are placed in the proper sequence.

Proteins are synthesized.

 Genetic code

Genetic code: language that relates the series of nucletides in mRNA

to the amino acids specified.

• The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA determines the amino

acid order for the protein.

• Every three bases (triplet) along the mRNA makes up a codon.

• Each codon specifies a particular amino acid.

• Codons are present for all 20 amino acids.

 Genetic code

5' U C A G 3'
UUU Phe UCU Ser UAU Tyr UGU Cys U
UUC Phe UCC Ser UAC Tyr UGC Cys C
U UUA Leu UCA Ser UAA Stop UGA Stop A
UUG Leu UCG Ser UAG Stop UGG Trp G
CUU Leu CCU Pro CAU His CGU Arg U
CUC Leu CCC Pro CAC His CGC Arg C
C CUA Leu CCA Pro CAA Gln CGA Arg A
CUG Leu CCG Pro CAG Gln CGG Arg G
AUU Ile ACU Thr AAU Asn AGU Ser U
Asn C
A AUC Ile ACC Thr AAC AGC Ser
AUA Ile ACA Thr AAA Lys AGA Arg A
AUG Met* ACG Thr AAG Lys AGG Arg G
GUU Val GCU Ala GAU Asp GGU Gly U
GUC Val GCC Ala GAC Asp GGC Gly C
G
GUA Val GCA Ala GAA Glu GGA Gly A
GUG Val GCG Ala GAG Glu GGG Gly G
*AUG signals translation initiation as well as coding for Met
 Genetic code

• 64 condons are possible from the triplet combination of A, G, C, and U.

•Codons are written from the 5’ end to the 3’ end of the mRNA molecule

• UGA, UAA, and UAG, are stop signals.

(code for termination of protein synthesis).

• AUG has two roles:

1. Signals the start of the proteins synthesis (at the beginning of an mRNA).

2. Specifies the amino acid methionine (Met) (in the middle of an mRNA).
 tRNA (transfer RNA)

tRNA translates the codons into specific amino acids. Serine

- It contains 70-90 nucleotides.

- The 3’ end, called the acceptor stem and

always has the nucleotide ACC and a free
OH group that binds a specific amino acid.

- Anticodon: a sequence of three

nucleotides at the bottom of tRNA, which
is complementary to three bases in an mRNA
and it can identify the needed amino acid.

Anticodon loop
A
G U

Codon on mRNA U C A
 Translation
There are 3 stages in translation:

1. Initiation begins with mRNA

binding to the ribosome.

2. Elongation proceeds as the next

tRNA molecule delivers the next
amino acid, and a peptide bond
forms between the two amino acids.
 Translation

3. Termination: Translation continues until a stop codon

(UAA, UAG, or UGA) is reached and the completed
protein is released.

Often the first amino acid (methionine) is not needed

and it is removed after protein synthesis is complete.