Data Structures And

Algorithms
Lecture 6
RAM Model
• Random Access Machine (not R.A. Memory)

• An idealized notion of how the computer works

• Each "simple" operation (+, -, =, if) takes exactly 1 step.
• Each memory access takes exactly 1 step
• Loops and method calls are not simple operations, but depend
upon the size of the data and the contents of the method.

• Measure the run time of an algorithm by counting the number of steps.

Space Complexity

• The amount of memory required by an algorithm to run to

completion

• The term memory leaks refer to the amount of memory

required is larger than the memory available on a given
system
Space Complexity cont…
• Fixed part: The size required to store certain data/variables, that
is independent of the size of the problem:

• Such as int a (2 bytes, float b (4 bytes) etc

• Variable part: Space needed by variables, whose size is dependent

on the size of the problem:
• Dynamic array a[]
Analysis of algorithms (Cont!!!)
• Example:
void float sum (float* a, int n)
{
float s = 0;
for(int i = 0; i<n; i++) {
s+ = a[i];
}
return s;
}
Constant Space:
one for n, one for a [passed by reference!], one for s, one for I , constant
space=c=4
Running Time of Algorithms
• Running time
• depends on input size n
• size of an array
• polynomial degree
• # of elements in a matrix
• # of bits in the binary representation of the input
• vertices and edges in a graph
• number of primitive operations performed
• Primitive operation
• unit of operation that can be identified in the pseudo-code
Steps To determine Time Complexity
Step-1. Determine how you will measure input size. Ex:
• N items in a list
• N x M table (with N rows and M columns)
• Two numbers of length N
Step-2. Choose the type of operation (or perhaps two operations)
• Comparisons
• Swaps
• Copies
• Additions
Steps To determine Time Complexity
Step-3. Decide whether you wish to count operations in the
• Best case? - the fewest possible operations
• Worst case? - the most possible operations
• Average case? This is harder as it is not always clear what is
meant by an "average case". Normally calculating this case
requires some higher mathematics such as probability theory.
Step-4. For the algorithm and the chosen case (best, worst,
average), express the count as a function of the input size of the
problem.
Example-1.
• 5 Given the formula that you have determined, decide the
complexity class of the algorithm
• Is there really much difference between
• 3n
• 5n + 20
• and 6n -3
• A. Yes but when n is large?
Primitive Operations in an algorithm
• Assign a value to a variable (i.e. a=5)
• Call a method (i.e. method())
• Arithmetic operation (i.e. a*b, a-b*c)
• Comparing two numbers ( i.e. a<=b, a>b &&a>c)
• Indexing into an array (i.e. a[0]=5)
• Following an object reference (i.e. Test obj)
• Returning from a method (i.e. return I )
Assignment Statement
• The running time of a an assignment is considered as constant
• Examples:
• A=5;
• A[5]=7
• C=a+b;

• Note:- Running time of assignments can be considered as 1 or C (Refer

to constant values)
for Loops
• The running time of a for loop is at most the running time of the
statements inside the for loop (including tests) times the number of
iterations.
Example
For(i=0;i<=n-1;i++)
Let
A[i]=0; 1. running time of basic operations
is constant C
Note: 2. and loop is iterated n times then
(number of basic steps in loop body) Total Running time will be
* (number of iterations) n*c
Nested for Loops
• The total running time of a statement inside a group of nested for
loops is the running time of the statement multiplied by the product
of the sizes of all the for loops.
• Example
Let
for(i=0;i<=n-1;i++) 1. running time of basic operations
for(j=0;j<=m-1;j++) is constant C
2. Running time of outer loop (i.e.
K++; i) is n
3. And running time of Inner loop
(i.e. j) is m
4. Total Running time will be
m*n*c
Consecutives for Loops
• The total running time of consecutive loops is the sum of running of
all consecutives loops
• Example
for(i=0;i<=n-1;i++) Let
K++; 1. running time of basic operations
is constant C
for(j=0;j<=m-1;j++) 2. Running time of loop (i.e. i) is n
3. And running time of loop (i.e. j)
K++; is m
4. Total Running time will be
n*c + m * c
 Conditional Statements
• The running time of an if-else statement is never more than the
running time of the test plus the larger of the running times of S1
and S2.
Let
• Example 1. Condition is true and path have
one basic operation (i.e. S1) then
if(Condition) Ruining time will be constant C1
S1; 2. Similarly, if condition is false
and path have one basic
else operation (i.e. S2) then Ruining
time will be constant C2
S2;
Note:
Number of basic steps on branch that is executed
Primitive Operations: Example -1
• Count the number of primitive operations in this program :
Int method()
{
i = 0;
a = 0;
for (i=1;i<=n;i++)
{ printf(“%d”,i);
a=a+i; }
return I
}
 Primitive Operations Yes/No Total
Assign a value to a variable Yes 5
Primitive Call a method No 0
Operations: Arithmetic operation Yes 2
Example -1 Comparing two numbers Yes 1

(Cont !!!) Indexing into an array No 0

Following an object reference No 0

Returning from a method Yes 1

Primitive Operations - Example 2
• Count the number of primitive operations in this program :
Int method()
{ i = 0;
a = 0;
for (i=1;i<=n;i++)
{ printf(“%d”, i);
for (a=1;a<=n;a++)
printf(“%d”,a);
}
return I
}
 Primitive Operations Yes/No Total
Assign a value to a variable yes 6
Call a method No 0
Primitive
Arithmetic operation yes 2
Operations:
Example -2 Comparing two numbers yes 2
(Cont !!!) Indexing into an array No 0
Following an object No 0
reference
Returning from a method yes 1