Module-02

• 2.1 Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Classification of Alloys based on phases and
phase diagram Binary alloy phase diagram – Isomorphous, Eutectics type I
and II, Peritectic. The Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram. Classification of Plain
Carbon Steels and Cast Irons. Effect of alloying elements in steels. TTT
diagram & CCT diagram. Annealing, normalizing, tempering, hardening and
surface hardening processes.
• 2.2 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: Basics only. Important nonferrous
materials like aluminium, copper, nickel, tin, zinc and their alloys, properties
and applications.
• 2.3 Powder Metallurgy: Powder manufacturing methods; Powder Metallurgy
Process. Applications such as oil impregnated Bearings and Cemented
Carbides. Limitations of Powder Metallurgy
Classification of Alloys based on phases
Constitution Of Alloys
• A Solid solution may be defined as a solid that consist of two or more
elements atomically dispersed in a single phase structure.
• Solute- A Solute is the minor part of the solution or the material
which is dissolved.
• Solvent- Solvent constitutes the major portion of the solution.
• Phase-It is a physical and chemical compositions of a substance ,
separated from other portion by a surface and an interface. Each
portion have different composition and properties. Or state of matter
that is uniform throughout in chemical composition and physical
state.
Solid solution
Use of equilibrium or phase diagram
• The equilibrium diagram is used to obtain following information.
1. It shows the various phase present at different composition and
temperature
2. It indicates solid solubility of one into other
3. It shows the temperature range over which solidification or
liquidification of material system occurs
4. It indicates the temperature at which different phase start to melt.
• Various types of Phase diagram Depending on solubility of one metal
into another in liquid and solid state

• Types Of Phase Diagram

1) Isomorphous System
2) Eutectic System
3) Partial Eutectic System
4) Layer System

A solution (solid or liquid) is phase with more than one component

A mixture -material with more than one phase
Isomorphous System
• Two metals have complete solid solubility in liquid state as well as
complete solubility in solid state.
• Eg. Cu-Ni, Au-Ag, Au-Cu, Mo-W, Mo-V, Mo-Ti, W-V,
Au-Ni Bi-Sb
• %L(U)=CV/UV
• %S(V)=UC/UV
Eutectic System
• Two metals have complete solid solubility in liquid state and complete
insolubility in solid state.
• Pb-As Bi-Cd Th-Ti Au-Si

• The area above the liquidus line is a single-phase homogeneous liquid

solution. since the two metals are soluble in the liquid state.
• The remaining three areas are two-phase areas
• It is common practice to consider alloys to the left of the eutectic
composition as hypoeutectic alloys and those to the right as
hypereutectic alloys
• %s=3U/DU
=20/40=50%
METAL A

%L=D3/DU
=20/40=50%
Eutectic mix of A+B

• D3U Total arm

Eutectic reaction
• It is common practice to consider alloys to the left of the eutectic composition
as hypoeutectic alloys and those to the right as hypereutectic alloys

•L const. temp Solid A + Solid B

• Since solidification of the eutectic alloy occurs at constant temperature, its

cooling curve would be the same as that for a pure metal or any congruent-
melting alloy. The eutectic solidification, however, is incongruent since there is
a difference in composition between the liquid and the individual solid phases.
Partial Eutectic system
• The two metals which have complete solubility in liquid state and
partial solubility in solid state.

• Eg Ag-Cu, Pb-Sn, Sn-Bi, Pb-Sb, Cd-Zn, Al-Si

• α Solid solution of B in A
• β Solid solution of A in B
Peritectic Reaction
• In the peritectic reaction a liquid and a solid react isothermally to
form a new solid on cooling. The reaction if expressed in general as
coollng
• Liquid + solid = new solid
• eg- Fe-C, Ag-Pt
• % alpha=66.3-42.4/66.3-10.5=

• % L=42.4-10.5/66.3-10.5=
• Like the eutectic system, the Peritectic reaction is found in systems
with complete liquid solubility but limited solid solubility.

• In the Peritectic reaction the liquid (L) reacts with one solid ( α) to
produce another solid ( β). L+α → β
Iron Carbon Diagram
• Purn iron,upon heating, experience two changes in crystal before it
melts.

• At room temp stable form, called ferrite and have BCC crystal
structure

• Ferrite experience polymorphic transformation to FCC austenite, at

912 .c
α (Ferrite)

• Ferrite is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in low temp BCC α

iron
• It is almost pure iron and relatively soft and ductile.
• The solubility of carbon in α iron at room temp is 0.008% and increase
temp to about 0.025% at 727 .c
• It is strongly ferromagnetic upto 768 and becomes paramagnetic at
768 .c
• Elongation 40%
• Hardness - < 0 HRC or < 90 HRB
γ-(Austenite)
• Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in FCC γ iron
• It dissolve upto 2% of carbon at 1147 .c
• The phase is stable only above 727 .c
• It is soft, ductile, malleable and non magnetic(paramagnetic) phase.
δ(δ Ferrite)
• It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in high temp BCC δ iron
• Similar to α ferrite except its occurrence at high temp
Fe3C (Cementite/Iron carbide)
• It is an intermetallic compound of iron and carbon with fixed carbon
content of 6.67% by wt.
• Extremely hard and brittle phase
• Ferromagnetic upto 210 .c and paramagnetic above this temp
(α+ Fe3C )Pearlite
• It is lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite
• It is very bright in appearance
• It has fingerprint like appearance
(γ+ Fe3C) Ledeburite
• It is eutectic lamellar mixture of austenite (light phase) and cementite
(dark phase)
• It is unstable below 727 .c and transform into ferrite and cementite
 Bainite
• It consists of Elongated and needle-
shaped particles of Fe3C within a
ferrite matrix
• α+ Fe3C
• Finer structure (i.e., smaller -ferrite
and cementite particles),
• They are generally stronger and
harder than pearlitic ones; yet they
exhibit a desirable combination of
strength and ductility.
Martensite
• Martensite is a nonequilibrium single-phase structure
that results from a diffusionless transformation of
austenite when austenitized iron–carbon alloys are
rapidly cooled (or quenched) to a relatively low
temperature (in the vicinity of the ambient).
• It has a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure
Martensite
• Of the various microstructures that may be produced for a given steel
alloy, martensite is the hardest and strongest and, in addition, the
most brittle; it has, in fact, negligible ductility.
Eutectoid Transformation
Bainite
• It consists of
elongated and
needle-shaped
particles of Fe3C
within a ferrite
matrix
• α+ Fe3C
Bainite

• finer structure (i.e., smaller -ferrite and cementite particles),

• they are generally stronger and harder than pearlitic ones; yet they
exhibit a desirable combination of strength and ductility.
Martensite (α+ Fe3C )
• Martensite is a nonequilibrium single-phase structure
that results from a diffusionless transformation of
austenite when austenitized iron–carbon alloys are
rapidly cooled (or quenched) to a relatively low
temperature (in the vicinity of the ambient).
• It has a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure
Martensite
• Of the various microstructures that may be produced for a given steel
alloy, martensite is the hardest and strongest and, in addition, the
most brittle; it has, in fact, negligible ductility.
Heat treatment Processes
Why we apply heat treatment process ?
• To relief internal stresses developed during cold and hot working
processes
• Harden and strength metals
• Improve machinability
• Change grain size
• To induce softness, improve ductility and toughness
• To increase heat , wear and corrosion resistance of materials
• Improve electrical and magnetic properties
Heat treatment processes
• Annealing
• Normalising
• Hardening
• Tempering
• Surface hardening
• Case Hardening
A) Nitriding
B) Cyniding
C) Flame hardening
Stages of heat treatment
• I stage- Heating the metal slowly to ensure a uniform temperature
• II Stage- Soaking (HOLDING) the metal at a given temperature for a
given period of time
• III Stage- Cooling the metal to room temperature(Furnace,Air,water)
Full Annealing

• Purpose- To refine grain, induce softness, improve electrical and

magnetic properties also machinability

• Entire mass of furnace must be cooled down along with the material.
 Full Annealing
-Steel is heated no change until A1(lower critical
temp) line is crossed.

-Pearlite will transform to small grains of

austenite but large grains of ferrite remains
same

-continued heating between A1 and A3 lines will

allow large ferrite grains to transform to small
grains of austenite so above A3 it show only
small grains of austenite.
-proper annealing temp is 30 to 50 .c

-result in small grains of ferrite and coarse

lamellar pearlite
Limitations
-Not employed for hypereutectoid steel.
• The microstructure of annealed hypereutectoid steel will consist of coarse
lamellar pearlite areas surrounded by a network of proeutectoid cementite
(see Fig. 7.14). Because this excess cementite network is brittle and tends to be
a plane of weakness, annealing should never be a final heat treatment for
hypereutectoid steels. The presence of a thick, hard, grain boundary will also
result in poor machinability.
Normalising
• To increase toughness of steel
• To eliminate cementite network that may have formed due to slow cooling in
temp range.
Pearlite (α+ Fe3C )
• The normalising of steel is carried out by heating above upper critical temp
i.e.A3
• Holding long enough at this temp for homogenous Austinitization and cooling
to room temp in air
• Due to air cooling which is slightly fast as compared to furnace cooling
employed in full annealing, normalising shows slightly different structure and
properties than annealed component
• For hypereutectoid steels, normalizing will reduce the continuity of
proeutectoid cementite network, and in some cases it may be suppressed
entirely. Since it was the presence of the cementite network which
reduced the strength of annealed hypereutectoid steels, normalized steels
should show an increase in strength.
• Normaling takes less time and is more convenient and economical
than annealing and hence more common heat treatment in industry.
Annealing Vs Normalising
• Annealing
• Main purpose of annealing is to
relieve internal stresses
• Less hardness, More T.S. and
toughness
• Pearlite is coarse
• Grain size distribution is more
Uniform
• Internal stresses are least
• Normalising
• Main purpose of normalising is to
improve mechanical properties
• Slightly more hardness, less T.S.
and toughness
• Pearlite is fine
• Grain size distribution is slightly
less uniform
• Internal stresses are more.
Purposes of Hardening
• Main purpose to develop high hardness
• To improve wear resistance for tool steel
• To improve tensile strength for structural steel
• Improve yield strength spring steel
• Under slow cooling rates carbon atoms are able to diffuse out the
austenite structure. The iron atoms then move slightly to become BCC
• But in hardening process water cooling is used which have higher
cooling rate and because of higher cooling rate insufficient time is
allowed for carbon to diffuse out of solution
• The structure cannot become BCC while carbon is trapped in solution
called martensite.
• In the case of hypereutectoid steel partial hardening results in
formation of a mixture of martensite and cementite, which is harder
than full-hard martensite structure.
 Tempering process
• Tempering consists of heating steel to a temperature below eutectoid
temperature and keeping it at that temperature for specified time to
reduce brittleness followed by air cooling
• The aim of tempering is to decrease brittleness of hardened steel.
• Steel can be heat treated high hardness and strength levels. The reasons
for doing this are obvious. Structural components subjected to a high
operating stress. Similarly tools,dies,forming ,cutting devices need a
hardened structure to resist wear and deformation. At the same time
brittleness is induced which with slight impacts may causes fracture.
• Tempering is the heat treatment process reduces brittleness of a steel
without lowering its hardness and strength
• In the as-quenched martensitic condition, the steel is too brittle most
applications. The formation of martensite also leaves high residual
stresses in the steel. Therefore, hardening is almost always followed
tempering or drawing
Purposes of tempering
• To relieve the internal stresses produced during hardening
• To reduce Hardness
• To improve ductility and toughness
• To reduce retained austenite
Tempering
• Tempering cycle consists of heating of hardened component to a
temperature well below Ac1(100 to 700 0c) temperature and holding
for a period of 1 to 2 hours then steel is cooled to room temperature
in air or in salt bath.
• Tool steels are tempered at low temperature.
• High alloy steels are tempered at higher temperature.
• Low alloy steels are tempered above 350.c
Types of tempering
• 1. Low temperature tempering-
• Carried out between 100 to 200 .c
• Internal stresses are majorly removed
• Martensite decomposes as low carbon martensite and epsilon carbide
(Low carbon carbide)
• No appreciable change in the properties related to microstructure
observed.
• Martensite- Low carbon martensite + epsilon carbide
Types of tempering
2.Medium temperature tempering
• Carried out between 200 to 500 .c
• Low carbon martensite and epsilon carbide transform to ferrite and cementite.
• Hardness drastically decreases with improvement in ductility
Tempered martensite + ε carbide- Fine cementite (orthorhombic) + ferrite
Called (troostite)

3. High temperature tempering

• Produces spheroidal cementite in ferrite matrix also called spherodizing
• Hardness further reduces with improvement in ductility.
Fine cementite + ferrite- Coarse cementite+ Ferrite ( sorbite)
Transformation Diagrams
• There are two main types of transformation diagram that are helpful
in selecting the optimum steel and processing route to achieve a
given set of properties.
• These are
1. Time temperature transformation(TTT) diagrams
2. Continuous cooling transformation (CCT)
TTT Diagram
• On the other hand , TTT diagram is a more practical diagram

• It shows what structure can be expected after various rates of cooling

• It graphically describe the cooling rate required for the transformation of

austenite, pearlite, bainite or martensite.

• TTT diagram also gives the temperature at which such transformation take
place.
Time temperature transformation
(IT transformation)
• Prepare a large number of samples cut from the Same bar. The cross
section has to be small in order to react quickly to changes in
temperature.

• Place the sample in a furnace or molten salt bath at the proper

austenitizing temperature. They should left at given temp long enough
to become completely austenite.

• Place the samples in a molten salt bath which is held at a constant

temperature
 Time temperature transformation(IT
transformation)
• After varying time intervals in the salt bath, each sample is quenched in
cold water or ice brine.

• After cooling, each sample is checked for hardness and studied

microscopically.

• The above steps are repeated at different subcritical temp until sufficient
points are determined to plot the curves on the diagram.
Continuous cooling transformation (CCT)

• CCT diagrams are generally more appropriate for engineering

applications as components are cooled (air cooled, Furnace cooled
quenched etc.) from a processing temperature as this is more
economic than transferring to a separate furnace for an isothermal
treatment.
Continuous cooling transformation (CCT)

• 1. Indicates the extent of transformation as a function of time for a

continuously decreasing temperature.
• 2. Samples are austenitised and then cooled at a predetermined rate
and degree of transformation is measured
• 3. In this case also a large number of experiments are required to
build up a complete CCT diagram
 Surface Hardening processes
• Introduction
• Components like ball ,bearings , gears, rock drills bits ,camshaft , axles
require outer surface to be hard and wear resistant and inner core
more ductile and tougher
• Combination of properties is achieved through surface hardeneing
Processes.
1)Thermochemical treatment –Change in surface composition by
diffusion of carbon and nitrogen.
2) Phase transformation of outer surface by rapid heating and cooling-
Flame ,induction , laser beam hardening
Carburising(Cementation or Case hardening)
• Increasing percentage of carbon on surface of metal called
carburising.
• It consist of heating steel in austenite region (i.e. 900 to 950 .c) in
presence of solid ,liquid and gases which are rich in carbon.
• Holding for definite period till desired case depth is achieved.
• In austenite region ,solubitlity of carbon is more and hence carbon
from medium diffuse into the steel.
• High carbon present on surface does not mean high hardness, unless
the carbon is present in martensite form.
Carburising classified into following types
• Solid carburising
• Liquid carburising
• Gas carburising
Solid carburising
• The component to be carburised are packed with a cast iron boxes
and sealed with clay.
• If these boxes are not properly sealed air comes in contact with
carbonaceous medium and burns without carburising.
• carbonaceous medium -53% TO 55% charcoal. 30 to 32% coke and
remaining carbonates of Ba,Ca and Na(accelerator).
• Process- Heating upto austensing temp(925 to 950 .c)
• Holding for 6 to 15 hours.
• Case depth 1 to 2.5 mm.
Solid carburising
• Used to produce thick carburised cases
• Reactions-
 Liquid carburising
• Carburising done by immersing the steel components in a carbonaceous fused
salt bath medium containing sodium or potassium cyanide(KCN), sodium or
potassium chloride and barium chloride(Bacl2) which acts as a accelerator.
• Heating range 815 to 900 .c
• Bacl2 + 2NaCN-----Ba(CN)2 + 2NaCl
• Ba(CN)2 + Fe------ Fe(C ) + BaCN2 (Barium Cynamide)
• Reactions
• 2 NaCN + 202------ Na2Co3 + Co + 2 N
• 2 CO-----C + CO2
• C and N2 so formed diffuse into steel and give thin wear resistance layer of
carbonitride
Liquid carburising
• In presence of alkaline earth salts , if the operating temperature is
kept high ,the formation of cyanate inhibited under these
conditions,the reaction process chiefly by the cynamide shift as below

• BaCo3+ 2NaCN------Ba(CN)2 + Na2Co3

• Ba(CN)2------------BaCN2+ C
• Carburising time of 1 hr for case depth of 0.1 to 0.5 mm .
Liquid carburising
• Advantages-
• Uniform and rapid heat transfer
• Low distortion
• Negligible surface oxidation
• High uniformity in case depth and carbon content

• Disadvantages-
• Highly poisons sodium cynaide
Gas carburising
• Components heated in the range of 900 .c to 950.c in the presence of
carbonaceous gases like methane, ethane, propane or butane.

• Reaction-
• Carburising mainly occurs due to CO to CO2 Conversion
• Carburising time 1 to 2 hrs for case depth from 0.2mm to 0.5 mm at
900 .c
Gas carburising
• Accurate control on case depth and surface carbon content.
• Less labour cost but skilled labour required for accurate control.
Direct Hardening
• Heating upto austenitizing temperature
• Rapid quench to trap the carbon in the crystal structure called
martensite.

• Main types:
• Induction hardening
• Flame hardening
Induction hardening
Flame hardening
Powder Metallurgy
• The parts produced by PM have adequate physical and mechanical
properties while completely meeting the functional performance
characteristics.
• The costs of producing a component of given shape and required
dimensional tolerances by PM is generally lower than cost of casting or
making it as a wrought product, because of extremely low scrap and the
fewer processing steps.
• Parts can be produced which are impregnated with oil or plastic .They
can be electroplated, heat treated and machined if necessary.
• The rate of production of parts is quite high , a few hundreds to several
thousands per hour.
 Powder Metallurgy
• Powder metallurgy an important commercial technology include:
• PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape, eliminating or
reducing the need for subsequent processing.
• Very little waste of material; about 97% of the starting powders are converted to
product.
• Owing to the nature of the starting material in PM, parts having a specified level of
porosity can be made. This feature lends itself to the production of porous metal
parts such as filters and oil-impregnated bearings and gears.
• Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can be shaped by
powder metallurgy. Tungsten is an example; tungsten filaments used in
incandescent lamp bulbs are made using PM technology.
• PM compares favorably with most casting processes in terms of dimensional
control of the product. Tolerances of 0.13 mm are held routinely.
Powder metallurgy processes
Particle shapes in metal powder
PRODUCTION OF METALLIC POWDERS
• There are three principal methods by which metallic powders are
commercially produced, each of which involves energy input to
increase the surface area of the metal. The methods are
• (1) Atomization
• (2) chemical
• (3) electrolytic
ATOMIZATION
• This method involves the conversion of molten metal into a spray of
droplets that solidify into powders.
• It is the most versatile and popular method for producing metal
powders today, applicable to almost all metals, alloys as well as pure
metals.
• There are multiple ways of creating the molten metal spray, several of
which are illustrated in Figure
 Chemical reduction process

• In this process the compound of metals such as iron oxides are reduced with co
and H2 at temp below the melting point of metal in an atmosphere controlled
furnace. the reduced product is then crushed and ground

• Powder of W,MO,Ni and CO can easily be produced by reduction process because

it is economical, flexible and perhaps the largest volume of metallurgy powders is
made by the process of oxide reduction.
Electrolysis
• In electrolysis, an electrolytic cell is
set up in which the source of the
desired metal is the anode. The
anode is slowly dissolved under an
applied voltage, transported through
the electrolyte, and deposited on the
cathode. The deposit is removed,
washed, and dried to yield a
metallic powder of very high purity.
The technique is used for producing
powders of beryllium, copper, iron,
silver, tantalum, and titanium.
BLENDING AND MIXING OF THE
POWDERS
• Blending refers to when powders of the same chemical composition
but possibly different particle sizes are intermingled.
• Different particle sizes are often blended to reduce porosity.

• Mixing refers to powders of different chemistries being combined.

• An advantage of PM technology is the opportunity to mix various
metals into alloys that would be difficult or impossible to produce by
other means.
The conventional powder metallurgy production sequence
Compaction
• In compaction, high pressure is applied to the powders to form them
into the required shape. The conventional compaction method is
pressing, in which opposing punches squeeze the powders contained
in a die. The steps in the pressing cycle are shown in Figure
SINTERING
• After pressing, the green compact lacks strength and hardness; it is easily
crumbled under low stresses. Sintering is a heat treatment operation
performed on the compact to bond its metallic particles, thereby increasing
strength and hardness.

• The treatment is usually carried out at temperatures between 0.7 and 0.9
of the metal’s melting point (absolute scale).

• The terms solid-state sintering or solid-phase sintering are sometimes used

for this conventional sintering because the metal remains un melted at
these treatment temperatures.
SINTERING
Applications of powder metallurgy in
reference with cutting tools and oil
impregnated bearing
Oil impregnated porous bearing(self
lubricating bearing)
Bronze bearings are widely used and made up of cu and Sn
(90:10) with addition of graphite.
Graphite acts as solid lubricant.
Processes:
1)Mixing
2)Cold compaction
3)Sintering
4)Repressing or sizing
5)impregnation
Oil impregnated porous bearing(self
lubricating bearing)
Metal powder of cu and Sn with small amount of fine natural graphite are
blended or mixed to obtain the desired alloy composition(90 cu: 10 sn)

This powder is cold compacted at pressures between 20 to 50 kg/mm2 to form

green compact of desired shape and size.

These compacts are sintered in a reducing atmosphere at a temp. of about 800c.

A typical sintering consists of holding compact at 400-450c for removal of part of

graphite and diffusion of molten Sn in to the copper, followed by further
heating to 800c for 5 minutes.
 Oil impregnated porous bearing(self
lubricating bearing)
At this temp. a tin rich liquid phase is formed which is absorbed by copper.

Distortion occurring during sintering can be eliminated by repressing(i.e. repressing) or

machining.

The repressed or machined components are impregnated with cold or hot oil using
pressure, vaccum or a combination of these.

Such a oil impregnated bearing is called self lubricating bearing.

Oil Impregnated Porous Bearings
(Self Lubricating Bearings)
The working of the bearing
SECONDARY OPERATIONS PM
• Secondary operations include densification, sizing, impregnation,
infiltration, heat treatment, and finishing.
• Densification and Sizing A number of secondary operations are
performed to increase density, improve accuracy, or accomplish additional
shaping of the sintered part.
• Repressing is a pressing operation in which the part is squeezed in a
closed die to increase density and improve physical properties.
• Sizing is the pressing of a sintered part to improve dimensional accuracy.
Coining is a press working operation on a sintered part to press details into
its surface.
 Application of P/M
1) Automotive application
In motor car industry, porous bearings are used for starters, wipers, sliding doors,
dynamos, clutches and brakes of cars, buses, trucks and tractors.
Electrical contacts, crank shaft drive, piston rings, connecting rod and brake linings are
other powder metallurgy parts.
Sintered friction materials are used for brakes in cars, trucks, aircraft and similar
application.

2) Defence application
Metal powder plays an important role in military and national defense systems. These
powder find use in rockets, missiles, cartridge cases, Bullets and military pyrotechnics
such as tracers etc.
 Application of P/M

3)High temp. application:

Components made of w,Mo, and Ta by P/M are widely used in the electric
light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, radio valves , mercury arc rectifiers and
x-ray tubes in the form of filament, cathode, anode, screen and control
grids.
Refractory metal carbides are used for dies, rolls, cutting tools, etc. at high
temperature.
 Application of P/M

4) Aerospace application:
Metal powder play an important role in rockets, missile, satellites and
space vehicles.
Metal powder of Be, Al, Mg and Zr are used as solid fuels in rockets
and missiles.
Tungsten parts with uniform distribution of porosity are used in
plasma jet engine and ion engine which are operated at about
1800c
Bronze bearing, filters, ferrite cores for transformers and inductor
coils and alnico magnetic materials in communication systems are
used in various space satellites and vehicles.
 Application of P/M
5) Other applications:
Parts in clock and timing devices, typewriters, adding machines,
calculators, permanent magnets and laminated bimetallic strips.
The manufacture of some of the components such as sintered
porous bearings, cemented carbides, refractory metals, etc.
 limitations and disadvantages
• These include the following:
(1) Tooling and equipment costs are high,
(2) Metallic powders are expensive, and
(3) There are difficulties with storing and handling metal powders (such as
degradation of the metal over time, and fire hazards with particular metals).
Also,
(4) There are limitations on part geometry because metal powders do not
readily flow laterally in the die during pressing, and allowances must be
provided for ejection of the part from the die after pressing. In addition,
(5) Variations in material density throughout the part may be a problem in
PM, especially for complex part geometries.
Metals Classification
Steels
• In steels, C atoms occupies interstitial sites of Fe.
• Steels are classified based on their C content/alloying additions which
in turn dictates their applications: plain carbon steels and alloying
steels.
• Low-carbon steels: % wt of C < 0.3
• Medium carbon steels: 0.3 to 0.6 % C
• High carbon steel: % wt of C > 0.6
• Low carbon steels:
- Carbon present is not enough to strengthen them by heat treatment, hence are
strengthened by cold work.
- They are easily weldable and machinable.
- Typical applications: tin cans, automotive body components, structural shapes,
etc.

• Medium carbon steels:

- They are less ductile and stronger than low carbon steels.
- Heat treatable (austenitizing, quenching and tempering). - Hardenability is
increased by adding Ni, Cr, Mo.
- Used in various tempered conditions.
- Typical applications: gears, railway tracks, machine parts.
• High carbon steels:
- They are strongest and hardest of carbon steels.
- Heat treatable. Used in tempered or hardened conditions.
- Alloying additions – Cr, V, W, Mo
- Typical applications: Knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc where high
wear resistance is the prime requirement.
 HSLA and Stainless Steels
• HSLA (high strength low alloy) steels:
- They can be strengthened by heat treatment.
- Ductile and formable.
- Alloying addition – Cu, V, W, Ni, Cr, Mo, etc.
- Typical applications: support columns, pressure vessels, bridge beams.
• Stainless steels:
- They typical consists min.12% Cr along with other alloying elements, thus
highly corrosion resistant owing to presence of chromium oxide.
- Three kinds - ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic and precipitation
hardenable (martensitic, semi-austenitic)
– based on presence of prominent microstructural constituent.
 Stainless steels:
• Typical applications – cutlery, surgical knives, storage tanks, domestic items
• Ferritic steels are principally Fe-Cr-C alloys with 12-14% Cr. And small
additions of Mo, V, Nb, Ni.
• Austenitic steels contain 18% Cr and 8% Ni plus minor alloying elements. Ni
stabilizes the austenitic phase assisted by C and N.
• For, martensitic steels Ms is made to be above the room temperature. These
alloys are heat treatable. Major alloying elements are: Cr, Mn and Mo.
• Ferritic and austenitic steels are hardened and strengthened by cold work
because they are not heat treatable.
• Austenitic steels are non-magnetic as against ferritic and martensitic steels,
which are magnetic.
 Cast irons
• Grey cast iron -Cementite decomposes during solidification to form carbon
flakes. Thus they are brittle.
- Fractured surface looks grey because of presence of graphite, hence the name.
- These alloys consists carbon in form graphite flakes, which are surrounded by
either ferrite or pearlite. Because of presence of graphite, fractured surface of
these alloys look grayish, and so is the name for them
- Possess good damping properties.
- Typical applications – base structures, machine beds

• White cast iron -Cooled fast so that cementite does not decompose.
- Fractures surface looks whitish because of cementite, hence the name.
- They are brittle and extremely difficult to machine.
- Used as source materials for producing malleable iron.
• Nodular cast iron - Alloying addition of Mg to grey cast iron melt results
in graphite to form as nodules.
- They are stronger and ductile than grey cast iron.
- Typical applications – pump bodies, crank shafts, automotive components,
etc.

• Malleable cast iron - Formed by heat treating white cast iron. Heat
treatment involves heating to 800-900C, keep it there for long hours, then
cooling to room temperature.
- Cementite decomposes to form graphite and ferrite.
- Typical applications – railroad, connecting rods, marine and other heavy-
duty services.
 Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel
• Manganese contributes to strength and hardness; dependent upon the carbon content. Increasing the
manganese content decreases ductility and weldability. Manganese has a significant effect on the
hardenability of steel.
• Phosphorus increases strength and hardness and decreases ductility and notch impact toughness of steel.
The adverse effects on ductility and toughness are greater in quenched and tempered higher-carbon steels.
• Sulfur decreases ductility and notch impact toughness especially in the transverse direction. Weldability
decreases with increasing sulfur content. Sulfur is found primarily in the form of sulfide inclusions.
• Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking. Silicon is less effective than manganese in
increasing as-rolled strength and hardness. In low-carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to surface
quality.
• Copper in significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels. Copper can be detrimental to surface
quality. Copper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion resistance when present in amounts exceeding
0.20%.
• Nickel is a ferrite strengthener. Nickel does not form carbides in steel. It remains in solution in ferrite,
strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase. Nickel increases the hardenability and impact strength of
steels.
• Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. It enhances the creep strength of low-alloy steels at
elevated temperatures.
Non-ferrous materials
• Non-ferrous materials have specific advantages over ferrous
materials.
• They can be fabricated with ease, high relatively low density, and high
electrical and thermal conductivities.
Aluminium alloys
• Pure aluminum is a silvery-white metal with many desirable characteristics.
• It is light, nontoxic (as the metal), nonmagnetic and nonsparking. It is easily
formed, machined, and cast.
• As Al has FCC crystal structure, these alloys are ductile even at low
temperatures and can be formed easily. However, the great limitation of these
alloys is their low melting point (660.C), which restricts their use at elevated
temperatures.
• Pure aluminum is soft and lacks strength, but alloys with small amounts of
copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and other elements have very useful
properties.
• Aluminum is an abundant element in the earth's crust, but it is not found free
in nature.
• Aluminium alloys can be classified as; cast or wrought alloys, examples are;
• Wrought alloys-Which are initially cast as ingots or billets and
subsequently hot and /or cold worked mechanically into desired from.
• Rolling,Extrusion,Forming,Forging.
Aluminium alloys
• Very lightweight (about 1/3 the mass of an equivalent volume of steel
or copper) but with alloying can become very strong.
• Excellent thermal conductor excellent electrical conductor (on a
weight-for-mass basis, aluminium will conduct more than twice as
much electricity as copper).
• Highly reflective to radiant energy in the electromagnetic spectrum
• Highly corrosion resistant in air and water (including sea water)
• highly workable and can be formed into almost any structural shape
• non-magnetic and non-toxic
Aluminium alloys
• Applications-
• Door and window frames high tension power lines, wires, cables, bus bars,
components for television, radios, refrigerators and air-conditioners
• Beverage cans, bottle tops
• Propellers, airplane and vehicle body sheet, gear boxes, motor parts Al-Cu
food/ chemicals handing and storage equipments.
• Al-Cu-Mn-Zn- Cooking utensils.
• Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Cr Aircraft structural parts
Copper and its Alloys
• Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal
component. They have high resistance against corrosion.

• There are as many as 400 different copper and copper-alloy compositions

loosely grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy, brasses,
bronzes, copper nickels, copper–nickel–zinc (nickel silver), leaded copper,
and special alloys.

• The best known traditional types are bronze, where tin is a significant
addition, and brass, using zinc instead.
Brasses:
• Brass A brass is an alloy of copper with zinc.
• Brasses are usually yellow in color.
• The zinc content can vary between few % to about 40%; as long as it
is kept under 15%, it does not markedly decrease corrosion resistance
of copper.
• Brasses can be sensitive to selective leaching corrosion under certain
conditions, when zinc is leached from the alloy (dezincification),
leaving behind a spongy copper structure.
Brass classification-based on structure
• α Brasses
• α-β Brasses
• α Brasses is quite soft and ductile at room temperature and for this
reason alpha brasses are excellent cold working alloys.
• α brasses are divided into two groups
-Red alpha brasses(5 to 20%zinc)
-Yellow alpha brasses( 20 to 36%)
• Red α brasses-
• 1) Gliding metal-It contains 95%cu and 5%Zn.It is used for making
coins ,medals jewellery base for gold plating.
• 2) Red brass-It contains 85%cu and 15%Zn. It has good corrosion
resistance.It is suited for condenser and heat exchanger tubing
• 3) Low brasses-It contains 80%cu and 20%Zn. It is used for musical
instruments,thermostat bellows and flexible hoses.
• Yellow α brasses-
• 1) Cartridge brass- It contains 70%cu and 30%Zn.It is used for
cartridge cases, radiators cases, radiators cores and tanks, lamp
fixtures.
• 2) Yellow brass-It contains 65%cu and 35%Zn. Its properties are
similar to that of cartridge brass. It is used in reflector, fasteners and
springs.
• 3) Admiral metal- It is cartridge brass with 1% tin addition for
improved strength and corrosion resistance.used in condenser tube
and heat exchanger in steam power plant
• 4) Aluminium brass- The yellow α brasses are susceptible to corrosion
called dezincification-in marine environment.
• α-β Brasses- Contain 34 -46% zinc.
• β phase is hard and brittle at room temp. and plastic at elevated
temperature.

• Muntz metal-60% Cu and 40% Zn

-can not rolled,extruded or forged
-used for valve steams, brazing rods and architecture work.

• Naval brass-60% Cu and 39% Zn and 1% Sn.

-The tin addition improvers the resistance to salt water corrosion. Hence this
alloy is suitable for use in marine environments.
-Make marine hardware,propeller shafts,piston rods and valve steams.
• Leaded brass- lead (1-3% )improves the machinability of brass and
such a brass is called as leaded brass.-lock parts and gears.

• High tensile brasses-The addition of alloying elements such as Mn,Fe

and Sn to brass improves its tensile strength and corrosion resistance
Considerably.
• Used to make pump rods ,stamps and forgings for automobile fittings
and valve stems.
Bronzes
• A bronze is an alloy of copper and other metals, most often tin, but also
aluminium and silicon.
• Aluminium bronzes are alloys of copper and aluminium.
• The content of aluminium ranges mostly between 5-11%. Iron, nickel,
manganese and silicon are sometimes added.
• They have higher strength and corrosion resistance than other bronzes,
especially in marine environment, and have low reactivity to sulfur
compounds.
• Aluminium forms a thin passivation layer on the surface of the metal.
Example: Bell metal Phosphor bronze Nickel bronzes, e.g. nickel silver
and cupronickel Speculum metal
Properties
• Good thermal and electrical conductivity
• Ease of forming, ease of joining, and color.
• However, copper and its alloys have relatively low strength-to-weight
ratios Low strengths at elevated temperatures.
• Copper is resistant to corrosion in most atmospheres including marine
and industrial environments.
• It is corroded by oxidizing acids, halogens, sulphides and ammonia
based solutions Copper and its alloys -- the brasses and bronzes -- are
available in rod, plate, strip, sheet, tube shapes, forgings, wire, and
castings
Applications
• Pure Cu Electrical and thermal conductors (cast Cu), transistor
components, coaxial cables rectifiers, lead in wires (cold--worked Cu)
• Cu- Be- Co moulds for plastic parts, bearings, valves, gears(cast Cu)
• Cu--30Zn & Cu --40Zn (cold --work brass) fasteners, locks, heal
exchange components, large nuts and bolts, plumbing accessories,
pints and rivets.
• Cu--4Si bearing, belts, marine fittings
 Titanium and its Alloys
• Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical
elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at
extreme temperatures).
• They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability
to withstand extreme temperatures.
• However, the high cost of both raw materials and processing limit their use to
military applications, aircraft, spacecraft, medical devices, highly stressed
components such as connecting rods on expensive sports cars and some
premium sports equipment and consumer electronics.
• Although "commercially pure" titanium has acceptable mechanical properties
and has been used for orthopedic and dental implants, for most applications
titanium is alloyed with small amounts of aluminium and vanadium, typically
6% and 4% respectively, by weight.
Properties
• Low density metal (4.5 g/cm cm3)
• High melting point = 1668oC
• elastic modulus = 107MPa
• Chemical reactivity with other material at elevated temperatures
• Corrosion resistance
• Ti—alloys ,very high elastic modulus ~1400MPa, easily forged and
machined, high ductility
Applications

• Pure Ti - Jet engine cases and airframe skins, corrosion--resistance

equipment for marine's applications chemical processing, industries.

• Ti--5Al--2.55Sn – Gas turbine engine casing

• Ti--6Al-4V – High strength prosthetic implants, orthopedics, airframe

structured components
Nickel and nickel alloys
• Nickel is a versatile element and will alloy with most metals.

• Complete solid solubility exists between nickel and copper.

• Wide solubility ranges between iron, chromium, and nickel make possible many alloy
combinations.

• It has strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance to metals. It is used in stainless steels and
nickel-base alloys.

• Nickel alloys are used for high temperature applications, such as jet-engine components and
rockets.

• Application- Shape Memory Alloys:Ni-Ti

Thank You