Edf 401

unit 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR
THE STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATION/MANAGEMENT
WHAT IS THEORY?
What is theory? Is there a theory of educational administration?
Theory is “A conceptual scheme of system that is held to explain a
group of facts or phenomena and to discover and organise new facts”
(Walton, 1969,p.7)
A theory is regarded as a hypothesis which has undergone verification
and which has potential (a) for explaining and predicting events and
(b) for the production of new knowledge’ (Walker, 1970,p.6).
A theory can be viewed as a set of relevant, internally consistent
postulates about a particular observable phenomenon along with
definitions to enable the user to move from the abstract to the real in
order to describe, explain, predict, and/or advance knowledge
(Kimbrough and Nunnery, 1983.p.245).
The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English by A. S.
Hornby et al (1963) defines theory as ‘Reasoned supposition
(assumption) put forward to explain facts and events.
How Albert Einstein described theory.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORY, RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

The relationships between and among theory,

research and practice could be described as circular

in nature.
Theory is usually derived from practice. Practice

may lead to identification of problems or hunches.

This may lead to generation of propositions or call
for research, which give rise to theories.
 FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
Theory serves the following functions among others-
 An explanatory function. A theory provides explanations for possible
relationships between events, and therefore helps us understand events better.
 Heuristic function. Theory allows one to point out areas where knowledge is
lacking, and where further research is needed which may lead to extension of
knowledge.
 Predictive function. A good theory enables one to make predictions about
relationships on conditions that have not yet been observed or have not
occurred.
 A taxonomic function. It provides a framework or classification scheme that
enables the user ‘fit’ what is observed or known about a particular group of
events.
 Theory helps to organize our knowledge into a systematic, orderly body.

 Theory provides a guide to researchers.

 More importantly theory guides practice.

SCHOOLS OF ADMINISTRATIVE/MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

The science of administration has evolved over the last

ninety years. Managers of all types of organizations—
political, educational, and economic—were
increasingly trying to find better ways to improve
productivity and satisfy customers’ needs.
The Evolution of Management Theory
The classical school (scientific management &
administrative management)
The behavioural school (human relations)
Management science
The system approach
o The contingency approach
• Dynamic engagement approach
 THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

The Classical School of Management consists of

two separate perspectives –

(a) The Scientific Management Approach and

(b) The Administrative Management Approach.

 THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT APPROACH

Proponents: Taylor; Henry Gantt; Louis Brandies

etc.
Taylor is regarded as the ‘Father of Scientific
Management
Involved the systematic study of the relationships
between people and tasks for the purpose of
redesigning the work process for higher efficiency.
It sought to reduce the time a worker spent on
each task by optimizing the way the task was
done.
 The Principles of Scientific Management
Time study principle: All work should be measured by
accurate time study and a standard time established.
Piece-rate principle. Wages should be proportional to
output.
Standard conditions. Standardized conditions and
appliances
Loss in case of failure. When the worker fails, he
should be the loser for it.
Experience in large organizations. As organizations
become increasingly sophisticated, first rate workers
should be employed and remunerated accordingly.
The Principles of Scientific Management

Separation-of-planning-fromperformance principle
Management should shoulder the responsibility of
planning work for workers.
Scientific-methods-of-work principle –Management
responsibility
Managerial-control principle.Managers should be
trained and taught to apply scientific principles of
management control.
Functional-management principle. The strict military
principles.
 Scientific Management

Time and Motion Studies

1. The two hands should begin and end motions

simultaneously.
2. Alms movement should be simultaneous and made
in opposite and symmetrical direction.
3. Smooth continuous hand motions are preferable
to zigzag or straight-line motions involving sudden
or sharp changes in direction.
4. Tools, materials and controls should be close to
and in front of the operator.
5. Tools should be combined whenever possible.
Criticisms of Scientific Management
 Taylor’s approach reduced man to the status of a machine
and neglected the human and ethical aspects of labour.
 He took a narrow view of management – not consider the
impact of forces in the environment on the organizations.
 Taylor and his followers overlooked the social needs of
workers as members of a group – ignored associations,
unions or the informal aspects of an organization.
 They also ignored socio-psychological aspect of man and
overlooked the desire for job satisfaction and other
variables.
 Scientific Management theory was concerned primarily
with problems at the operational level and failed to deal
with higher levels of management such as planning,
decision-making and problem solving.
Merits of Scientific Management

In spite of the criticisms leveled against it,

Scientific Management has something good to
offer. The contributions include:
the demonstration that jobs could be performed
more efficiently through the management of jobs;
time and motion studies which tended to increase
worker efficiency;
helping the unskilled worker by improving
productivity enough to raise his pay;
increasing the productivity of the worker with
corresponding decrease in his effort, fatigue etc.
it stimulated others and served as the basis for
further studies in management.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
THEORY

 The mechanistic approach means teachers’ work should be

routinised but effective teaching calls for flexibility
 Maximization of productivity emphasized by Taylor cannot
suffice as the sole end of education
 Education involves the human mind hence it is difficult to
measure the amount of work done by the teacher
 Though the economic reward is important, it should not be
emphasized at the expense of the psychological needs
 Teachers deal with students (human beings) and cannot
pretend to be so impersonal and simply task oriented
 Unrealistic to maintain that the teacher’s work should be
standardized – not machines/individual differences
 Rigid control or supervision is not the best in the school
situation as it stifles initiative and creativity
 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT THEORY

In spite of the limitations some of ideas could be

helpful when applied in the school system

If the task of the teacher is well defined, he stands a

better chance of performing it well
The idea of staff selection and training is very useful
The provision of appropriate tools and materials to
the worker is also very relevant to schools
The idea that workers should know the aims and
objectives of their duties is very important in teaching
 ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT THEORY

While scientific management ideas, as represented in Taylor’s

work, focused primarily on the operative level (individuals at
the workshop level) from the bottom of the organizational
hierarchy upwards and ignored the larger top level issues,
administrative management theorists concentrated on upper
level administration (the M.D) and worked downwards on the
organizational hierarchy.
 The study of how to create an organizational structure that leads
to high efficiency and effectiveness.
Max Weber
Developed the concept of bureaucracy as a formal system of
organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency
and effectiveness.
The major proponents were Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick and
Lyndall Urwick.
 Fayol’s Principles of Management
Division of Labor:
allows for job specialization.
 jobs can have too much specialization leading to poor quality
and worker dissatisfaction.
Authority and Responsibility
both formal and informal authority resulting from special
expertise.
Unity of Command
Employees should have only one boss
Line of Authority
A clear chain of command from top to bottom of the firm.
Centralization
The degree to which authority rests at the top of the
organization.
Unity of Direction
A single plan of action to guide the organization.
 Fayol’s Principles of Management

Equity
The provision of justice and the fair and impartial
treatment of all employees.
Order
The arrangement of employees where they will be of the
most value to the organization and to provide career
opportunities.
Initiative
The fostering of creativity and innovation by encouraging
employees to act on their own.
Discipline
Obedient, applied, respectful employees are necessary for
the organization to function.
 Fayol’s Principles of Management

Remuneration of Personnel
An equitable uniform payment system that motivates
contributes to organizational success.
Stability of Tenure of Personnel
Long-term employment is important for the development of
skills that improve the organization’s performance.
Subordination of Individual Interest to the Common
Interest
The interest of the organization takes precedence over that
of the individual employee
Esprit de corps
Comradeship, shared enthusiasm foster devotion to the
common cause (organization).
 BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY
In response to the perceived defects of the classical school
of management thought which ignored or underestimated
the human factor in administration, the Behavioral School
(Human Relations Movement) emerged
Its major exponents were Mary Follett, Elton Mayo and
McGregor.
There was increased interest in helping managers deal
more effectively with a people side of their organizations
Focuses on the way a manager should personally manage
to motivate employees
The Human Relations Movement
The human relations movement arose from early attempts
to systematically discover the social and psychological
factors that would create effective Human reaction
 BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

The Human Relations Movement

Mary Parker Follett

Concerned that Taylor ignored the human
side of the organization
Her contributions to management lie in the
application of psychological insights and
findings of social sciences to industry
Suggested workers help in analyzing their jobs
If workers have relevant knowledge of the task,
then they should control the task
Initiated the idea of contingency or situational
approach to management
 BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

The Human Relations

Elton Mayo and The Hawthorne Studies

The Illumination Experiment

Worker productivity was measured at various levels of light
illumination.
The Researchers found that regardless of whether the light
levels were raised or lowered, worker productivity
increased.

The conclusions were that:

When special attention is given to workers by management,
productivity is likely to increase, regardless of actual changes in
working conditions (illumination)
Informal work group – the social environment of employees – has great
BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

The Human Relations

Elton Mayo and The Hawthorne Studies

The Relay Assembly Room Experiment

The experiments were designed to determine the
effect of rest pauses, lunch breaks, working hours,
and other conditions on worker productivity
Increased productivity – psychological and
sociological; that is, the participants worked harder
and produced more simply because they knew they
were being observed
The workers reaction has since come to be called
“the Hawthorne effect”.
 BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

The Human Relations

Elton Mayo and The Hawthorne Studies

The Bank-wiring Room Experiment
Throughout the one-year experiment, the group
maintained the steady rate of production informally
agreed on by the group members.
Peer pressure slowed down the fast workers and
prompted slow workers to keep up.
Thus, in these studies there was no increase in output
to be explained by the Hawthorne effect.
It however emphasized the role of informal groups
within an organization.
 BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY The Human
Relations
Conclusions of the Hawthorne Studies
 Administrators work with and through people
 Formal and information organizations exist side by side as
inseparable whole
 Workers respond to management as members of an informal
group, not as individuals
 The economic incentive is not the only significant motivator.
 Administration is a shared responsibility and therefore the
organizational structures should allow free interplay of ideas
 Workers use informal organizations to protect themselves against
the arbitrary decisions of management
 Individuals are active human beings, not passive logs in a machine.
 A narrow span of control is not a prerequisite to effective
supervision.
 Informal leaders are very often as important as formal supervisors
BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY

The Human Relations

Impact of Human Relations Movement on Educational
Administration
 Increasing efforts to democratize the practice of educational
administration – All members working as a team.
 The educational administrator has become responsible for
the promotion of relations between organizational members
that is mutually satisfying.
 Educational administration has come to be seen as a service
activity, contributing to effective instructional programmes.
 The need to satisfy psycho-socio as well as economic needs
of teachers and other employees has been realised.
 It shows that in the school there can be informal groupings
and they need to be recognized and effectively utilized for
attainment of goals.
 THEORY X AND THEORY Y

Douglas McGregor proposed the two different sets of

assumptions about workers.
Theory X assumes the average worker is lazy,
dislikes work and will do as little as possible.
Managers must closely supervise and control
through reward and punishment.

Theory Y assumes workers are not lazy, want to do a

good job and the job itself will determine if the
worker likes the work.
Managers should allow workers greater latitude,
and create an organization to stimulate the
workers.
 MANAGEMENT SCIENCE THEORY
An approach to management that uses rigorous
quantitative techniques to maximize the use of
organizational resources.
Quantitative management — utilizes linear
programming, modeling, simulation systems and
chaos theory.
Operations management —techniques used to
analyze all aspects of the production system.
Total Quality Management (TQM) —focuses on
analyzing input, conversion, and output activities to
increase product quality.
Management Information Systems (MIS) —
provides information vital for effective decision
 SYSTEM APPROACH

The system approach to management views the

organizations as a unified, purposeful system
composed of interrelated parts.

This approach gives managers a way of looking

at the organization as a hole and as a part of the
larger external environment.

Systems theory tells us that the activity of any

segment of an organization affects ,in varying
degree the activity of every other segment.
 THE CONTINGENCY APPROACH

The contingency approach (situation approach)

was developed by the managers, consultants and
researchers who tried to apply the concepts of the
major schools to the real life as methods highly
effective in one situation failed to work in other
situation.
Contingency theory is based on the premise that
situations dictate managerial action
Situation differs – a technique that works in one
case will not work in others.
It challenges the concept of “Universality”
proposed by Fayol and other classical writers
 DYNAMIC ENGAGEMENT APPROACH

Dynamic engagement refers to the view that time

and human relationships are forcing management
to rethink traditional approaches in the face of
constant, rapid change
We use dynamic engagement to convey the mood
of current thinking and debate about management
and organizations and involves the following
elements:
 DYNAMIC ENGAGEMENT APPROACH

NEW ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The dynamic engagement approach recognizes that an organization
environment is not some set of fixed, impersonal forces.
Rather it is a complex, dynamic, web at people interacting with each other.
As a result Managers not only pay attention to their own concerns, but also
understands what is important for other managers within the organization
and in other organizations.

ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Managers using a dynamic engagement approach pay close attention to the
values that guide people in their organizations.
The corporate Culture that embodies those values, and values held by the
people outside the organization.

GLOBALIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

The Dynamic engagement approach recognizes that the world is at the
manager’s doorstep
Managers facing the twenty first century think of themselves as global
 DYNAMIC ENGAGEMENT APPROACH
 INVENTING AND REINVENTING ORGANIZATIONS
Managers who practice dynamically engagement continually
search for ways to unleash the creative potential of their
employees and themselves.

 CULTURES AND MULTICULTURALISM

Managers who embrace the dynamic engagement approach
recognize that the various perspective and values that people of
different cultural backgrounds bring to their organizations are
not only a fact of life but a significant source of contributions.

 QUALITY
By the dynamic engagement approach, total quality
management (TQM) should Be in every manager’s vocabulary