UNIT IV

Tree Traversal
General Tree

Visiting the nodes in the tree

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Preorder Traversal

• RACDEBF
Level order Traversal

• RABCDEF

Postorder Traversal

• CDEAFBR
• Note: Inorder traversal is not
applicable in general tree.

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General Tree Representation
• List Representation
• Left(First) Child/Right Sibling Representation

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List Representation

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Left(First) Child/Right Sibling
Representation

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Example: Activity

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Binary Tree
• A binary tree is a data structure specified as a set of so-called node
elements. The topmost element in a binary tree is called the root
node, and each node has 0, 1, or at most 2 nodes.
Examples:

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Properties of Binary Tree
• At each level of i, the maximum number of nodes is 2 power I ( ).
• Therefore, the maximum number of nodes at height 3 is equal to
(1+2+4+8) = 15. In general, the maximum number of nodes possible
at height h is (20 + 21 + 22+….2h) = 2(power h)+1 -1.
• The minimum number of nodes possible at height h is equal to h+1.
• If the number of nodes is minimum, then the height of the tree would
be maximum. Conversely, if the number of nodes is maximum, then
the height of the tree would be minimum

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Types of Binary Tree
• Full/Proper/Strict Binary tree
• Complete Binary tree
• Almost complete Binary tree
• Perfect Binary tree
• Left Skewed Binary tree
• Right Skewed Binary tree
• Balanced tree
• Extended Binary tree

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Full/Proper/Strict/2- tree Binary tree
• The full binary tree is also known as a strict binary tree.
• The tree can only be considered as the full binary tree if each node
must contain either 0 or 2 children.
• The full binary tree can also be defined as the tree in which each node
must contain 2 children except the leaf nodes.

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Complete Binary tree
• The complete binary tree is a tree in which all the nodes are
completely filled except the last level.
• In the last level, all the nodes must be as left as possible.
• In a complete binary tree, the nodes should be added from the left.

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Almost complete Binary tree
• An almost complete binary tree is a special kind of binary tree where
insertion takes place level by level and from left to right order at each
level and the last level is not filled fully always.

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Perfect Binary tree
• A binary tree is said to be ‘perfect’ if all the internal nodes have
strictly two children, and every external or leaf node is at the same
level or same depth within a tree.
• A perfect binary tree having height ‘h’ has (2 power h) – 1[ ]node.
Here is the structure of a perfect binary tree:

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Left Skewed Binary Tree
• These are those skewed binary trees in which all the nodes are having a left child or no child at all.
• It is a left side dominated tree.
• All the right children remain as null.

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Right Skewed Binary Tree
• These are those skewed binary trees in which all the nodes are having a right child or no child at all.
• It is a right side dominated tree.
• All the left children remain as null.

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Balanced Binary Tree
• In a balanced binary tree, the height of the left and the right subtrees of
each node should vary by at most one.

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Extended Binary Tree
Extended binary tree is a type of binary tree in which all the null sub tree of the original tree are replaced with special
nodes called external nodes whereas other nodes are called internal nodes

• Each node will have either two child or zero

child or 1 child
• Nodes with two children – Internal nodes
• Node with no child – External nodes

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Binary Tree Representation
• A binary tree data structure is represented using two methods. Those
methods are as follows...

1. Array Representation
2. Linked List Representation

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Array Representation
• If Parent position is “i” then
• Leftchild is at position “2i+1”
• Right child is at position “2i+2”

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
A B C D F G H I J - - - K - - - -

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Linked List Representation struct node {
int data;
Left Child Parent Right Child
Address Address Address struct node* left;
struct node* right;
};

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 1. Inorder Traversal

Binary Tree Traversal 2.3. Preorder Traversal

Postorder Traversal
4. Level order Traversal
1. Inorder Traversal: Program:
Algorithm Inorder(tree): void printInorder(struct node* node)
{
1. Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Inorder(left-subtree) if (node == NULL)
2. Visit the root. return;
3. Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Inorder(right-subtree)
/* first recur on left child */
printInorder(node->left);

/* then print the data of node */

printf("%d ", node->data);

Result : G, D, H, L, B, E, A, C, I, F, K, J /* now recur on right child */

printInorder(node->right);
}
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 Binary Tree Traversal
2. Preorder Traversal:

Algorithm Preorder(tree) Program:

1. Visit the root. void printPreorder(struct node* node)
2. Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Preorder(left-subtree) {
3. Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Preorder(right-subtree) if (node == NULL)
return;

/* first print data of node */

printf("%d ", node->data);

/* then recur on left subtree */

printPreorder(node->left);

/* now recur on right subtree */

printPreorder(node->right);
Result: A, B, D, G, H, L, E, C, F, I, J, K }

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 Binary Tree Traversal
3. Postorder Traversal (Practice): Program:
void printPostorder(struct node* node)
Algorithm Postorder(tree)
{
1. Traverse the left subtree, i.e., call Postorder(left-subtree)
2. Traverse the right subtree, i.e., call Postorder(right-subtree)
if (node == NULL)
3. Visit the root. return;

// first recur on left subtree

printPostorder(node->left);

// then recur on right subtree

Result : G, L, H, D, E, B, I, K, J, F, C, A
printPostorder(node->right);

// now deal with the node

printf("%d ", node->data);
}

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Binary Tree Traversal
• 4. Level Order Traversal

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Expression Tree
• The expression tree is a binary tree in which each internal node corresponds to
the operator and each leaf node corresponds to the operand.
• Example expression tree for 3 + ((5+9)*2) would be:

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Example
• a + (b * c) + d * (e + f)

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Steps to Construct Expression tree
• Read one symbol at a time from the postfix expression.
• Check if the symbol is an operand or operator.
• If the symbol is an operand, create a one node tree and push a pointer onto a
stack
• If the symbol is an operator, pop two pointers from the stack namely T1 & T2
and form a new tree with root as the operator, T1 & T2 as a left and right child
• A pointer to this new tree is pushed onto the stack
• Thus, An expression is created or constructed by reading the symbols or
numbers from the left. If operand, create a node. If operator, create a tree
with operator as root and two pointers to left and right subtree

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Example – Construct an Expression tree for
the given expression ab+c*
1. The first two symbols are operands, we create one- node tree and 3. Next, 'c' is read, we create one node tree and push a pointer to it onto the
push a pointer to them onto the stack. stack.

2. Next, read a'+' symbol, so two pointers to tree are popped, a new tree is 4. Finally, the last symbol is read ' * ', pop two tree pointers and form a new tree with a, '
formed and push a pointer to it onto the stack. * ' as root, and a pointer to the final tree remains on the stack.

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Traversing the Expression Tree
• Inorder Traversal – L P R
Infix Expression: a + b * c + d * (e + f)

• Preorder Traversal – P L R
Prefix Expression: ++a*bc*d+ef

• Postorder Traversal – L R P
Postfix Expression: a b c * + d e f + * +

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Threaded Binary Tree
• In the linked representation of binary trees, more than one half of the
link fields contain NULL values which results in wastage of storage space.
• If a binary tree consists of n nodes then n+1 link fields contain NULL
values.
• So in order to effectively manage the space, a method was devised by
Perlis and Thornton in which the NULL links are replaced with special
links known as threads.
• Such binary trees with threads are known as threaded binary trees.
• Each node in a threaded binary tree either contains a link to its child
node or thread to other nodes in the tree.
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Threaded Binary Tree
• One-way threaded Binary Tree
• Two-way threaded Binary Tree

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One-way threaded Binary Tree
• In one-way threaded binary trees, a thread will appear either in the right or left
link field of a node.
• If it appears in the right link field of a node then it will point to the next node that
will appear on performing in order traversal. Such trees are called Right threaded
binary trees.
• If thread appears in the left field of a node then it will point to the nodes inorder
predecessor. Such trees are called Left threaded binary trees.
• Left threaded binary trees are used less often as they don't yield the last
advantages of right threaded binary trees.
• In one-way threaded binary trees, the right link field of last node and left link field
of first node contains a NULL.
• In order to distinguish threads from normal links they are represented by dotted
lines.
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One-way threaded Binary Tree

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Two-way threaded Binary Tree
• In two-way threaded Binary trees,
• the right link field of a node containing NULL values is replaced by a thread that points to nodes inorder
successor and
• left field of a node containing NULL values is replaced by a thread that points to nodes inorder predecessor.

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Threaded Binary Tree Node Structure
A
struct node
{ Inorder Traversal: B A C
struct node *left; B C
boolean lthread;
int info;
boolean rthread;
struct node *right; 0 A 0
};

NULL 0 B 1 1 C 0 NULL

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Binary Search Tree Operations
• Create
• Search
• Insert
• Delete
• Preorder
• Inorder
• Postorder
• Maximum
• minimum
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 node *create()
{
Create node *temp;
printf("nEnter data:");
temp=(node*)malloc(sizeof(node));
45, 15, 79, 90, 10, 55, 12, 20, 50 scanf("%d",&temp->data);
temp->left=temp->right=NULL;
return temp;
}

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Search
Pseudocode:

If root == NULL
return NULL;
If number == root->data
return root->data;
If number < root->data
return search(root->left)
If number > root->data
return search(root->right)

Search 4
Compare 4 with 8, 4<8, check with the left child of 8
Compare 4 with 3, 4>3, check with the right child of 3
Compare 4 with 6, 4<6, check with the left child of 6
Compare 4 with 4, 4==8, node found, return the address.
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EXAMPLE 1:
Searching a node with value 12 in the given binary search tree

We start our search from the root node 45.

As 12 < 45, so we search in 45’s LEFT subtree.
As 12 < 39, so we search in 39’s LEFT subtree.
So, we conclude that 12 is present in the above BST.
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 EXAMPLE 2:
Searching a node with value 52 in the given binary search tree

We start our search from the root node 45.

As 52 > 45, so we search in 45’s RIGHT subtree.
As 52 < 56 so we search in 56’s LEFT subtree.
As 52 < 54 so we search in 54’s LEFT subtree.
But 54 is leaf node
So, we conclude that 52 is not present in the above BST.
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 Find the location to insert the newnode with value(4).

Insert Insert the node

void insert(node *root,node *temp)

{
if(temp->data<root->data)
{
if(root->left!=NULL)
insert(root->left,temp);
else
root->left=temp;
}
if(temp->data>root->data)
{
if(root->right!=NULL)
insert(root->right,temp);
else
root->right=temp;
}
Traverse the tree to find the location where 4 can be inserted.
}
8-3-6: 4 can be inserted as left child of 6.
Create the node
Insert as left child to 6.
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EXAMPLE : Inserting nodes with values 55 in the given binary search
tree

We start searching for value 55 from the root node 45.

As 55 > 45, so we search in 45’s RIGHT subtree.
As 55 < 56 so we search in 56’s LEFT subtree.
As 55 > 54 so so we add 55 to 54’s right subtree.

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Delete
There are three cases for deleting a node from a binary search tree.
Case I – Delete leaf node
• In the first case, the node to be deleted is the leaf node. In such a case, simply delete
the node from the tree.

Case II – Delete a node with single child

1.Replace that node with its child node.
2.Remove the child node from its original position.

Case III - Delete a node with two children

3.Get the inorder successor of that node.
4.Replace the node with the inorder successor.
5.Remove the inorder successor from its original position.
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 Case 1: Deleting a Leaf node (A node with no
children)
EXAMPLE : Deleting node 78 from the given binary search tree

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 Case 2: Deleting a node with one child
EXAMPLE : Deleting node 54 from the given binary search tree

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 Case 3: Deleting a node with two children
EXAMPLE 1 : Deleting node 56 from the given binary search tree

 Visit to the left sub tree of the deleting node.

 Grab the greatest value element called as in-order predecessor.
 Replace the deleting element with its in-order predecessor.

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Better BST
• Binary Search Tree which has optimal performance
• AVL Trees
• Splay Trees
• B-Trees
• Red-Black Trees

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 AVL Tree
An AVL tree is a binary search tree in which the difference between the height of the right
and left sub trees or the root node is never more than one.
The definition of a height balanced binary tree requires that every sub tree also be height
balanced. The balance factor of the nodes decides if the tree is balanced or not.

Balance Factor: The balance factor BF(T) of a node T is a binary tree is defined to be
B.F = hL – hR
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Rotations
• LL: New node Y is inserted in the Left Subtree of the Left Subtree of A
-> Single Rotation with left.
• LR: Y is inserted in the right subtree of the Left Subtree of A -> Double
Rotation with Left
• RR: Y is inserted in the right subtree of the right subtree of A -> Single
Rotation with Right
• RL: Y is inserted in the left subtree of the right subtree of A -> Double
Rotation with Right

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Single Rotation – Left Rotation (LL)
static Position SingleRotateWithLeft (Position K2)
{
Position K1;
K1=K2left;
K2Left = K1Right;
K1Right =K2;
K2height= Max (height (K2left), height (K2-Right)) +1;
K1height= Max (height(K1Left), height(K1Right)) +1;
return K1;
}

Example: insert “1”

After LL
Insert (1)

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Single Rotation – Right Rotation (RR)
static Position SingleRotateWithRight (Position K1)
{
Position K2;
K2=K1Right;
K1Right = K2Left;
K2Left=K1;
K2height= Max (height (K2left), height (K2-Right)) +1;
K1height= Max (height(K1left), height(K1Right)) +1;
return K2;
}

Example: Insert (13)

After RR
Insert (13)

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Double Rotation- LR Rotation

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Double Rotation- LR Rotation
After Insert 12
and 18

After RR After LL

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Double Rotation- RL Rotation

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Double Rotation- RL Rotation
After Insert 11
and 14

After LL After RR

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Insert

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 AVL TREE – NODE DELETION -
Example

• Delete nodes 52, 36, and 61 from the AVL tree given

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Splay Tree
• Splay tree in data structure is actually a variant or type of binary search tree which
is capable of self-adjusting and self-balancing functionality.

• In this type of data structure whenever any operation is carried out on the tree it is
followed by a special operation called as splay.

• The splay operation involves rearrangement of the data nodes in the tree so that
the current element which the operations are being carried out is set to as the root
node of the tree data structure.

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Splay Tree
• Self-balancing BST with an additional property that recently accessed
elements can be re-accessed fast.
• All operations can be performed in O(log n) time.
• All operations can be performed by combining with the basic operation
called splaying.
• Splaying the tree for a particular node rearranges the tree to place that
node at the root.
• Each splay step depends on three factors:
• Whether N is the left or right child of its parent P,
• Whether P is the root or not, and if not,
• Whether P is the left or right child of its parent, G (N’s grandparent).
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Splay tree operations
• Insertion
• Deletion
• Search
• Rotations(splaying)

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Splay Tree Rotations

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Splay Tree Rotations
• Zig: When the left rotation is performed.
• Zag: When right rotation is carried out.
• Zig zag: When we perform zig followed by zag that means right followed
by left.
• Zag zig: When we perform zag followed by zig that means left followed
by the right.
• Zig zig: When two right operations are carried out.
• Zag zag: When two left operations are performed.

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Zig Rotation

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Zag Rotation

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Zig-Zig Rotation

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Zag-Zag Rotation

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Zig-Zag Rotation

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Zag-Zig Rotation

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Example

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Class Activity

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 Zig Rotation
• The Zig Rotation in splay tree is similar to the single right rotation in AVL Tree rotations.

In zig rotation, every node moves one position to the right from its current position.

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 Zag Rotation
• The Zag Rotation in splay tree is similar to the single left
rotation in AVL Tree rotations. In zag rotation, every node
moves one position to the left from its current position.

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 Zig-Zig Rotation
• The Zig-Zig Rotation in splay tree is a double zig rotation. In
zig-zig rotation, every node moves two positions to the right
from its current position.

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 Zag-Zag Rotation
• The Zag-Zag Rotation in splay tree is a double zag rotation. In
zag-zag rotation, every node moves two positions to the left
from its current position.

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 Zig-Zag Rotation
• The Zig-Zag Rotation in splay tree is a sequence of zig rotation followed
by zag rotation. In zig-zag rotation, every node moves one position to
the right followed by one position to the left from its current position.

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 Zag-Zig Rotation
• The Zag-Zig Rotation in splay tree is a sequence of zag rotation followed
by zig rotation. In zag-zig rotation, every node moves one position to the
left followed by one position to the right from its current position.

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Insertion Operation in Splay Tree
• The insertion operation in Splay tree is performed using
following steps...
• Step 1 - Check whether tree is Empty.
• Step 2 - If tree is Empty then insert the newNode as Root
node and exit from the operation.
• Step 3 - If tree is not Empty then insert the newNode as leaf
node using Binary Search tree insertion logic.
• Step 4 - After insertion, Splay the newNode

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Deletion Operation in Splay Tree
• The deletion operation in splay tree is similar to deletion
operation in Binary Search Tree. But before deleting the
element, we first need to splay that element and then delete
it from the root position.

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 Red-Black Trees
• Self balancing binary search tree
• Also called as symmetric binary B-tree
• Although red-black tree is complex, all operations can be done in a worst case time complexity of
O(log n) where n is the number of nodes in the tree.
• Properties of red-black trees
• A red-black tree is a BST which has the following properties
1. The color of a node is either red or black.
2. The color of the root node is always black.
3. All leaf nodes are black.
4. Every red node has both the children colored in black.
5. Every simple path from a given node to any of its leaf nodes has an equal number of black nodes

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Red Black Trees
• Red Black Tree is a Binary Search Tree in which every node is colored either RED Or BLACK.

• Properties of Red Black Tree

• Property #1: Red - Black Tree must be a Binary Search Tree.
• Property #2: The ROOT node must be colored BLACK.
• Property #3: The children of Red colored node must be colored BLACK. (There should not be
two consecutive RED nodes).
• Property #4: In all the paths of the tree, there should be same number of BLACK colored
nodes.
• Property #5: Every new node must be inserted with RED color.
• Property #6: Every leaf (e.i. NULL node) must be colored BLACK.

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 Red-Black Tree - Example

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 Exercise
• Say whether the following trees are red-black or not.

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 Red Black Tree Rotations
• Left Rotate • Right Rotate

• Left –Right Rotate • Right – Left Rotate

Left rotate x-y Right rotate x-y Left rotate z-y

Right rotate z-y
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Insertion into RED BLACK Tree
• In a Red-Black Tree, every new node must be inserted with the color RED. The insertion operation in Red Black Tree is similar to
insertion operation in Binary Search Tree. But it is inserted with a color property. After every insertion operation, we need to check
all the properties of Red-Black Tree. If all the properties are satisfied then we go to next operation otherwise we perform the
following operation to make it Red Black Tree.
1. Recolor
2. Rotation
3. Rotation followed by Recolor
The insertion operation in Red Black tree is performed using the following steps...
• Step 1 - Check whether tree is Empty.
• Step 2 - If tree is Empty then insert the newNode as Root node with color Black and exit from the operation.
• Step 3 - If tree is not Empty then insert the newNode as leaf node with color Red.
• Step 4 - If the parent of newNode is Black then exit from the operation.
• Step 5 - If the parent of newNode is Red then check the color of parent's sibling(uncle) of newNode.
• Step 5a - If it is colored Black or NULL then make suitable Rotation and Recolor it.
• Step 5b - If color is Red then recolor and also check if parent’s parent of newnode is not rootnode then recolor it and
recheck
Step 6: Repeat the same until tree becomes Red Black Tree.
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Comparison of Search Trees based on time complexity

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