2.6.

Normal microbionta (flora)

•Is the population of microorganisms routinely

found growing on the body of healthy individuals.

•Microbes that typically inhabit body sites for

extended periods are resident microbiota,
whereas temporary occupants are transient
microbiota .

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There are many reasons to acquire
knowledge of the normal human microbiota.

1. An understanding of the different

microorganisms at particular locations
provides greater insight into the possible
infections that might result from injury to
these body sites.

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2.Help to understand the causes and
consequences of colonization and growth by
microorganisms normally absent at a specific
body site

3. An increased awareness of the role that these

normal microbiota play in stimulating the host
immune response

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The role of microbionta in protecting the body
from invade of pathogens
They excludes pathogens by:
i. covering binding sites that might otherwise
be used for attachment .

ii. consuming available nutrients

iii. producing compounds toxic to other bacteria

iv. To stimulate the adaptive immune system

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oWhen members of the normal microbiota are
killed or their growth suppressed, as can happen
during antibiotic treatment, pathogens may
colonize and cause disease

oFor example, Oral antibiotics can also inhibit

members of the normal intestinal microbiota,
allowing the overgrowth of toxin-producing strains
of Clostridium difficile that cause antibiotic-
associated diarrhea and colitis
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 Normal microbionta of the human body
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The Germ Theory of Disease and Koch’s Postulates
•Robert Koch; German physician(1843-1910)
discovered the Anthrax disease(1876) and
the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis (1882)
and cholera (1883).

•In order to prove whether or not diseases are caused

by microorganisms, Koch used mice as experimental
animals.

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•Koch demonstrated that when a small amount of
blood from a diseased mouse was injected into a
healthy mouse, the latter quickly developed
anthrax.

•He took blood from this second animal, injected

it into another, and again observed the
characteristic disease symptoms.

•He discovered that the anthrax bacteria could be

grown in nutrient fluids outside the host and the
bacteria still caused the disease when inoculated
into a healthy animal.
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•On the basis of these criteria Koch formulated a
set of rigorous criteria, now known as Koch’s
postulates .
Koch’s postulates state the following:
1. The disease-causing organism must always be
present in animals suffering from the disease but
not in healthy animals.

2. The organism must be cultivated in a pure

culture away from the animal body.

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3. The isolated organism must cause the disease
when inoculated into healthy susceptible animals

4. The organism must be isolated from the newly

infected animals and cultured again in the
laboratory, after which it should be seen to be the
same as the original organism.

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2.7. Modes of disease transmission and ways of
prevention .
Microorganisms are transmitted in health care
settings by four main routes:
1.Contact
• is the most frequent mode of transmission of
health care associated infections and can be
direct or indirect.
2. Droplet
• Transmission occurs when droplets containing
microorganisms generated during coughing,
sneezing and talking are propelled through the
air. E.g Common cold
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 3. Airborne
• Airborne transmission of infectious agents
occurs either by:
Airborne transmission of infectious agents
occurs either by:

• Airborne droplet nuclei

• Dust particles containing infectious agents.
E.g. mycobacterium tuberculosis

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 4. Common vehicle

•Applies to microorganisms that are transmitted

by contaminated items such as food, water,
medications, medical devices and equipment

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2.8. Uses of microorganisms
Microorganisms play important role in
• food and agriculture
• clean up the environment
• medicine and health
• Nutrient recycling
1. Agriculture
Micro organisms help in
• organic matter decomposition and
humus formation
• antagonism towards pathogens and pests

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2. Sewage treatment
•Anaerobic bacteria reduce the volume sludge
and produce methane
•Phosphorus removal from waste water.

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3. Bioremediation
• is a natural process that relies on microorganisms
and plants and/or their derivatives to degrade or
alter environmental contaminants as these
organisms carry out their normal life functions.

•The residues for the treatment are usually

harmless products including water, carbon dioxide
and cell biomass.

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4. Food production and processing
•The tart taste of yogurt, pickles, sharp cheeses,
and some sausages is due to the production of
lactic acid by one or more members of a group of
bacteria known as the lactic acid bacteria.

• These bacteria - including species of

Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus,
Leuconostoc, and Pediococcus

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 The role of Bacteria in Butter production
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5. Medicine and Health
•Genetically engineered bacteria are important in
production of insulin.

•Some bacteria and fungi are source of antibiotic

•Normal microbionta take part in fight against

pathogens

•There is also a bacterium in the gut which helps

in synthesizing the vitamins like biotin, vitamin K
and folic acid
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Gene transfer to produce human insulin in bacteria
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6. The role of micro organisms in recycling
minerals through ecosystems.

•Almost, 90% all living organisms are made up of

C, O, N and H and these substance are limited in
their availability.

•Thus in order for life to continue the substances

should be recycled. This is done by decomposers.

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I . The carbon cycle
•All organisms are composed of organic molecules
such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.

•The main processes which recycle carbon are:

A. carbon fixation

•Is a fundamental aspect of the carbon cycle by

primary producer.
•Without primary producers, no other organisms,
including humans, could exist
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B. Aerobic Respiration and Fermentation
Releasing of energy and production of
Carbondioxide .
When organic matter is degraded aerobically, a
great deal of carbondioxide is produced.

C. Methanogenesis and Methane Oxidation

• In anaerobic environments, CO2 is used by
Methanogens. These archaea obtain energy by
oxidizing hydrogen gas, using CO2 as a terminal
electron acceptor, generating methane (CH4).

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 •Methane that enters the atmosphere is
oxidized by ultraviolet light and chemical ions,
forming carbon monoxide and CO2.

•A group of microorganisms called

methylotrophs can use methane as an energy
source, oxidizing it to produce CO2 .

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 II. The nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is found in many biological compounds
 Nucleic acids
Protein
 ATP
The role micro organisms in stages of
nitrogen cycle
a.Nitrogen fixation
• Is a process when nitrogen gas is converted
into ammonium either by :Symbiotic or free
living bacteria

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•Root nodules are found on the roots of plants,
primarily legumes, which form a symbiosis with
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

•Under nitrogen-limiting conditions, capable

plants form a symbiotic relationship with a host-
specific strain of bacteria known as rhizobia.

•Nitrogen fixation in the nodule is very oxygen

sensitive.

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Root nodule The bacteria in Root nodules

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 b. ammonification
• is a process when decomposers decay the
excretory products and detritus, releasing
ammonium ions (NH4+) into the soil.

c. Nitrification
•Is a process when ammonia is converted into
nitrate by the presence of nitrifying bacteria in
the soil .
•In this process there is an intermediate product
called nitrite .

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 D. Denitrification
•Is a process when nitrate is reduced into
nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria
•This decreases amount of available nitrate
to the plants .

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iii. The sulfur cycle
•Sulfur is found in many proteins
 Stages of sulfur cycle
A. Sulfur reduction
 Is a process when sulphate or elemental
sulphur is converted into hydrogen
sulphide by different spp. of bacteria.
B. Sulfur oxidation
 Is a when hydrogen sulphide is converted
into sulphate.

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 iv. The phosphorus cycle
•Phosphorus (P) occurs in soils as both organic and
inorganic forms.
•The total amount of P in a clayey-textured soil being
up to ten times greater than in a sandy soil.
• Organic P
• is held very tightly and is generally not available for
plant uptake until the organic materials are
decomposed and the phosphorus released via the
mineralization process.

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•The rate of P release is affected by factors such
as soil moisture, composition of the organic
material, oxygen concentration and pH.

•inorganic P (orthophosphates) in the soil

solution at any given time is very small.
•Phosphorus in the inorganic form occurs mostly
as aluminum, iron or calcium compounds

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 The phosphorus cycle
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2.9. Controlling microorganisms

Sterilization: is a process by which an article,

surface, or medium is freed of all living
microorganisms either in the vegetative or in the
spore state .

Sterile: any material that has been subjected to

sterilization.

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•Although most sterilization is performed with
a physical agent, such as heat, a few chemicals
called sterilants.

•A germicide( microbicide): is any chemical

agent that kills pathogenic microorganisms.
•It can be used on inanimate (nonliving)
materials(disinfectant) or on living tissue
(antiseptics).

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  Disinfection
• is the use of a chemical agent that destroys or
removes all organisms capable of giving rise to
infection.
•This process destroys vegetative pathogens but
not bacterial endospores.
•disinfectants are normally used only on
inanimate objects because they can be toxic to
human tissue.

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•Disinfection processes also remove the
harmful products of microorganisms (toxins)
from materials. E.g
 applying a solution of 5% bleach to
examining table,
 Boiling food utensils used by a sick person,
and
 Immersing thermometers in an isopropyl
alcohol solution between uses.

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•Antiseptics : chemical agents that are applied
directly to the exposed body surfaces and
surgical incisions to destroy or inhibit vegetative
pathogens.
E.g.
a. Preparing the skin before surgical incisions
with iodine compounds.

b. Swabbing an open root canal with hydrogen

peroxide, and

c. Ordinary hand washing with a germicidal

soap.
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•Sanitization: is any cleansing technique that
mechanically removes microorganisms to reduce
the level of contaminants.

•A sanitizer is a compound (e.g., soap or

detergent) that is used to perform this task.

•Air sanitization with ultraviolet lamps reduces

airborne microbes

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•Preservation: is a general term for measures
taken to prevent microbe caused spoilage of
susceptible products (pharmaceuticals, foods).

•Decontamination: is the removal or count

reduction of microorganisms contaminating an
object

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Physical Methods of Sterilization and Disinfection
• Heat
Methods of heat application vary according to the
specific application.
•Pasteurization. This is the antimicrobial treatment
used for foods in liquid form (milk):
Low-temperature pasteurization: 61.5 0C, 30
minutes; 710C, 15 seconds.
High-temperature pasteurization: brief (seconds)
of exposure to 80–850C in continuous operation.
 Uperization: heating to 1500C for 2.5 seconds in
a pressurized container using steam injection.
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Dry heat sterilization
Sterilization by dry heat includes sterilization by:

a. Flaming : Sterilization of inoculating loop or wire,

the tip of forceps, searing spatulas, etc. in the flame
of the Bunsen burner till they become red hot.

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b. Incineration: is an excellent method for safely
destroying infective materials by burning them to
ashes.

• The method is used for complete destruction

and disposal of infectious material and

•It is fast and effective for most hospital wastes,

but not for metals and heat resistant glass
materials
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Moist heat sterilization
Autoclaves charged with saturated, pressurized
steam are used for this purpose: —
x1210C, 15 minutes, one atmosphere of
pressure (total: 202 kPa).
1340C, three minutes, two atmospheres of
pressure (total: 303 kPa).

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Intermittent sterilization
•Certain heat-labile substances (e.g., serum, sugar,
egg, etc.) that cannot withstand the high temperature
of the autoclave can be sterilized by a process of
intermittent sterilization, known as tyndallization .

•is carried out over a period of 3 days and requires a

chamber to hold the materials and a reservoir for
boiling water.

•Items to be sterilized are kept in the chamber and

are exposed to free-flowing steam at 100°C for 20
minutes, for each of the three consecutive days.

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