Distributed Computing

(PCCO7020T)

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Teaching Scheme Examination Scheme

• Lectures : 03 Hrs./week Term Test : 15 Marks

• Credits : 03 Teacher Assessment : 20
Marks
• End Semester Exam : 65 Marks Total Marks : 100 Marks

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• Prerequisite: Java Programming, Operating systems, Computer
Network.

• Course Objectives:
 To provide students with contemporary knowledge in distributed
systems.
 To equip students with skills to analyze and design distributed
applications.
 To provide master skills to measure the performance of distributed
synchronization algorithms.

3
Course Outcomes
Blooms Blooms
CO Course Outcomes Description
Level

Describe knowledge of the basic elements and concepts related to

CO1 L2 Understand
distributed system technologies.

CO2 Demonstrate the middleware technologies such as RPC, RMI. L3 Apply

CO3 Evaluate the various techniques used for clock synchronization and L5 Evaluate
mutual exclusion.

Analyze the concepts of resource and process management and

CO4 L4 Analyze
synchronization algorithms.

CO5 Explain the concepts of file systems like NFS, AFS. L2 Understand

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Course Contents
Unit-I 04 Hrs.
Introduction to Distributed Systems
• Characterization of Distributed Systems: Issues, Goals, and Types of
distributed systems, Distributed System Models, Hardware concepts,
Software Concept.
• Middleware: Services offered by middleware, Client Server model.

CO1 Describe knowledge of the basic elements and concepts related to L2 Understand
distributed system technologies.

5
Unit-II 08 Hrs.
Communication
• Layered Protocols, Interprocess communication (IPC): MPI, Remote
Procedure Call (RPC), Remote Object Invocation, Remote Method
Invocation (RMI)
• Message Oriented Communication, Stream Oriented Communication,
Group Communication.

CO2 Demonstrate the middleware technologies such as RPC, RMI. L3 Apply

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Unit-III 08 Hrs.
Synchronization
• Exclusion, Distributed Mutual Exclusion-Classification of mutual
Exclusion Algorithm, Requirements of Mutual Exclusion Algorithms,
Performance measure.
• Non Token based Algorithms: Lamport Algorithm, Ricart–Agrawala’s
Algorithm, Maekawa’s Algorithm.
• Token Based Algorithms: Suzuki-Kasami’s Broardcast Algorithms,
Singhal’s Heurastic Algorithm, Raymond’s Tree based Algorithm,
Comparative Performance Analysis.

CO3 Evaluate the various techniques used for clock synchronization and L5 Evaluate
mutual exclusion.

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Unit-IV
Resource and Process Management
• Desirable Features of global Scheduling algorithm, Task assignment
approach, Load balancing approach, load sharing approach,
Classification of Static and Dynamic Load Balancing algorithms,
Comparison of LBA.
• Introduction to process management, process migration, Threads.

Analyze the concepts of resource and process management and

CO4 L4 Analyze
synchronization algorithms.

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Unit-V 07 Hrs.
Consistency, Replication and Fault Tolerance
• Introduction to replication and consistency, Data-Centric and Client-
Centric Consistency Models, Replica Management.
• Fault Tolerance: Introduction, Process resilience, Reliable client-server
and group communication, Recovery.

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Unit-VI 07 Hrs.
Distributed File Systems
• Introduction and features of DFS, File models, File Accessing models,
File-Caching Schemes, File Replication.
• Case Study: Distributed File Systems (DFS), Network File System
(NFS), Andrew File System (AFS).
• Trends in Distributed Computing: Edge Computing, Cloud Computing,
Fog Computing.

CO5 Explain the concepts of file systems like NFS, AFS. L2 Understand

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• Text Books:
1. Andrew S. Tanenbaum and Maarten Van Steen, “Distributed
Systems: Principles and Paradigms”, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education,
2017.
2. George Coulouris, Jean Dollimore, Tim Kindberg, “Distributed
Systems: Concepts and Design”, 5th Edition, Pearson Education,
2011.
• Reference Books:
1. Andrew S. Tanenbaum and Maarten Van Steen, “Distributed
Systems: Principles and Paradigms”, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education,
2017.
2. M. L. Liu, “Distributed Computing Principles and Applications”, 2nd
Edition, Pearson Addison Wesley, 2004.
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Evaluation Scheme:
Theory:
• Continuous Assessment (A):
Subject teacher will declare Teacher Assessment criteria at the start of semester .

• Continuous Assessment (B):

• Conduction of Term Test
The two Term Tests of 15 marks will be conducted under Continuous Assessment(CA) out
of which best performance among the two Term Tests will be considered.
Term Test (TT) (for 15 Marks) Best of Two (TT-1/TT-2)

• End Semester Examination (C):

Question paper based on the entire syllabus, summing up to 65 marks.
Total duration allotted for writing the paper is 03 Hrs.
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 Unit-I
Introduction to Distributed Systems

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 Characterization of Distributed Systems

A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that appears to its

users as a single coherent system.

Traditional System Distributed System

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 Computer architectures consisting of interconnected, multiple processors are basically of
two types:
Tightly Coupled Systems
Loosely Coupled Systems

Fig a: Tightly Coupled Systems Fig b: Loosely Coupled Systems

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Tightly Coupled Systems:

 In these systems, there is a single systemwide primary memory (address space)

that is shared by all the processors [Fig. a].
 If any processor writes, for example, the value 100 to the memory location x,
any other processor subsequently reading from location x will get the value 100.
 Therefore, in these systems, any communication between the processors
usually takes place through the shared memory.
 Tightly Coupled Systems are referred to as parallel processing systems.
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Loosely coupled systems:

 In these systems, the processors do not share memory and each processor has its own local
memory [Fig. b] .
 If a processor writes the value 100 to the memory location x, this write operation will only
change the contents of its local memory and will not affect the contents of the memory of any
other processor.
 In these systems, all physical communication between the processors is done by passing
messages across the network that interconnects the processors.
 Loosely Coupled Systems are referred to as distributed computing systems, or simply
distributed systems.
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Examples of distributed systems
 Finance and commerce
• e-Commerce -Amazon and eBay
• payments technologies - PayPal

 The Information Society : repository of information and knowledge

• web search engines - Google and Yahoo

 Creative Industries and Entertainment

• online gaming - PUBG, Counter Strike etc
• downloadable or streaming content - YouTube

 Healthcare : online electronic patient records and related issues of privacy

• telemedicine in supporting remote diagnosis
• remote surgery (including collaborative working between healthcare teams) Continued…
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 Education : e-learning through web-based tools
• WebEx, Zoom, Google Classrooms

 Transport and Logistics :

• location technologies such as GPS

 Science : emergence of the Grid as a fundamental technology for e-Science

• storage, analysis and processing of scientific data (dataset)

 Environmental Management : The use of (networked) sensor technology to both

monitor and manage the natural environment
• to provide early warning of natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods or
tsunamis

Continued…
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 Issues:
• Issues related to the design of Distributed System:
1. Transparency
2. Flexibility
3. Reliability
4. Performance
5. Scalability
6. Security
7. Fault Tolerance

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1. Transparency
• It means to hide from users the fact that processes and resources are physically
distributed across the network.
• Types of Transparency:
 Access Transparency
- It hides the heterogeneous nature of machines from the users and
allow access to resources whether local or remote.
- The machine across the network may use different data representations and different
operating systems.
- The machines may use different naming conventions for files.
- All these differences must be hidden from the users and applications.

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 Location Transparency
-It implies that users can access any resource irrespective of its location.
-Naming: It is possible to achieve location transparency by assigning logical names to
resources.
-Users should not be able to identify the location of the resources like printers, CPU, Files
etc.

Fig: Location Transparency

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 Migration Transparency:
It implies that resources can change location or migrate without changing their names
and without affecting how the resource is accessed.
If any process is transferred to another node while in execution phase, then the
resources can be relocated in the execution phase without the knowledge of users or
application.

 Relocation Transparency:
It hides the movement of a resource when it changes its location to another node
while it is in use.
Other processes that are interacting with this process are not aware of this
movement.
This function is handled by the process migration mechanism of Distributed
Operating System.
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 Replication Transparency:
Replication allows increase in availability and improves performance by providing
access at a nearby location.
Replication supports fault tolerance.
Using replication transparency, nodes of a system can make multiple copies of
any resource like files and databases which are unnoticed by the users.

 Concurrency Transparency:
In D.S., the same resource can be accessed by multiple users.
The system is concurrency-transparent, if the users are unaware of each other.
To keep system in consistent state, a resource is locked until it is accessed by a
particular user.
It will be unlocked after the user’s use to make it available for other users in a
sequence.
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 Failure Transparency:
It hides the failure and recovery of a resource.
It refers to how errors and subsequent recoveries of nodes within the system are
invisible to users and application.
A D.S. is failure-transparent if the users can’t notice that a resource has failed and
the system recovers from the failure.
 Persistence Transparency:
It implies that users need not be aware that the resource is in volatile memory or
on the disk.
e.g. : Database servers copy the object’s state to memory, perform the operation
and copy the modified object back to the memory.

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Types of Transparencies (Summary)

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2. Flexibility
• The D.S. design may need modifications in initial stages.
• To achieve this flexibility, it is to be decided whether to use Monolithic kernel or
Microkernel on each machine.
• Kernel as a central control provides basic system facilities.
• Kernel executing in supervisory mode, has the privilege to access machine’s
physical resources.
• If the process executes in user mode, it has restricted access to resources.
• The major functions of the kernel are: memory management, process
management and resource management.
• The kernel is placed above hardware and below application layer.

Flexibility Continued…
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 Fig: Monolithic Vs Microkernel

File systems, IPC, Process

management

• Monolithic kernels use the “kernel does it all’ approach with all
functionalities provided by the kernel irrespective of whether all
machines use it or not.
• Microkernels use ‘minimalist’, modular approach with accessibility to
other services as needed.
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3. Reliability
 A user prefers distributed system where multiple processors are available as this
system becomes reliable in case of crash.
 On failure, a back up is available.
 Data reliability means data is available without any errors.
 In case of data replication, all copies should be consistent.
4. Performance
 It implies that application should run in a distributed environment just as it were
running on a single processor.
 The performance of a D.S. is measured by the metrics: response time,
throughput, system utilization & amount of network capacity used.
 Performance can be optimized by the actions like:
- To batch the messages together
- Data caching
- Computation grain size: only large computations with low interaction rate & less
data transfer should done as remote computations.
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5. Scalability
 Scalability in D.S. has some specific issues:
Concept Example Issues
Centralized A single server for all users With increased no of users, server
Services face manageability issues.
Centralized Data A single on-line telephone book May lead to communication failures
& bottlenecks.
Centralized A single algorithm doing routing based Overloaded situation may occur.
Algorithms on available information

 Three techniques commonly used to handle scalability in D.S.

- Hide Communication Latencies
- Hide Distribution
- Hide Replication

Scalability Continued…
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Fig: Hide Communication Latencies

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Scalability Continued…
Fig: Hide Distribution

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Scalability Continued…
• Hide replication:
• Scalability often leads to degradation of performance.
• So the replication of components across the D.S. is used as the solution for it.
• This increases availability & assist the load balancing.
• But it also incur consistency problem.

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6. Security
 In D.S., user’s information needs to be secure.
 Security here has three aspects:
 Confidentiality: protection against unauthorized access
 Integrity: protection of data against corruption
 Availability: protection against failure & always being accessible
 Encoding, Encryption techniques support the security of D.S.

7. Fault Tolerance
 Ideally D.S. are designed to mask failures.
 In a system with multiple servers, if any server breaks down, the other server
takes up the load.

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 Goals
• Four important goals that should be met while building distributed system
• A distributed system should:

1. Make resources easily accessible;

2. It should reasonably hide the fact that resources are distributed across a
network;

3. It should be open; and

4. It should be scalable.

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1. Making Resources Accessible
• The main goal of a distributed system is to make it easy for the users (and
applications) to access remote resources, and to share them in a controlled and
efficient way.
• Resources can be printers, computers, storage facilities, data, files, Web pages,
and networks etc.
• It makes economic sense to share costly re-sources such as supercomputers, high-
performance storage systems, image setters and other expensive peripherals.
• Connecting users and resources also makes it easier to collaborate and ex-
change information - groupware.
• As connectivity and sharing increase, security is becoming increasingly
important.
• A related problem is that increased connectivity can also lead to unwanted
communication (eg: spam mails). As a solution we need special information
filters that select incoming messages based on their content.
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2. Distribution Transparency
• An important goal of a distributed system is to hide the fact that its processes and
resources are physically distributed across multiple computers.
• A distributed system that is able to present itself to users and applications as if it
were only a single computer system is said to be transparent.
• Types of Transparencies

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3. Openness
• An open distributed system is a system that offers services according to standard
rules that describe the syntax and semantics of those services.
• In DS, services are generally specified through interfaces, which are often
described in an Interface Definition Language (IDL).
• IDL specifies precisely the names of the functions, types of the parameters,
return values, possible exceptions that can be raised, and so on.
• The services are precisely specified by means of natural language to do what it is
needed.
• An open distributed system should be easy to configure the system out of different
components - extensible.
• To achieve flexibility in open distributed systems, it is crucial that the system is
organized as a collection of relatively small and easily replaceable or adaptable
components.

38
4. Scalability
• Scalability in D.S. has some specific issues:
Concept Example Issues
Centralized A single server for all users With increased no of users, server
Services face manageability issues.
Centralized Data A single on-line telephone book May lead to communication failures
& bottlenecks.
Centralized A single algorithm doing routing based Overloaded situation may occur.
Algorithms on available information

Three techniques commonly used to handle scalability in D.S.

- Hide Communication Latencies
- Hide Distribution
- Hide Replication

39
Fig: Hide Communication Latencies

Fig: Hide Distribution 40

Scalability Continued…
5. Pitfalls
• False assumptions that everyone makes when developing a distributed
application for the first time:
1. The network is reliable.
2. The network is secure.
3. The network is homogeneous.
4. The topology does not change.
5. Latency is zero.
6. Bandwidth is infinite.
7. Transport cost is zero.
8. There is one administrator.

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 Distributed System Models

Various models are used for building distributed computing systems.

These models can be broadly classified into five categories:

1. Minicomputer
2. Workstation
3. Workstation-Server
4. Processor-Pool
5. Hybrid

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1. Minicomputer Model

Figure: Minicomputer Model 43

 The minicomputer model is a simple extension of the centralized time-sharing
system.
 As shown in Figure, a distributed computing system based on this model consists of a
few minicomputers (may be large supercomputers also) interconnected by a
communication network.
 Each minicomputer usually has multiple users simultaneously logged on to it.
 Each user is logged on to one specific minicomputer, with remote access to other
minicomputers.
 The network allows a user to access remote resources that are available on some
machine other than the one on to which the user is currently logged.
 The minicomputer model may be used when resource sharing (eg: databases of
different types) with remote users is desired.
 eg: early ARPANET
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first wide-area packet-
switching network with distributed control and one of the first networks to implement the
TCP/IP protocol suite. Both technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet.

44
2. Workstation Model

Figure: Workstation Model 45

Issues while implementing Workstation Model

• 1. How does the system find an idle workstation?

• 2. How is a process transferred from one workstation to get it
executed on another workstation?
• 3. What happens to a remote process if a user logs onto a workstation
that was idle until now and was being used to execute a process of
another workstation?
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3. Workstation-Server Model

Figure: Workstation-Server Model 47

 The workstation model is a network of personal workstations, each with its own
disk and a local file system
 A workstation with its own local disk is usually called a diskful workstation and a
workstation without a local disk is called a diskless workstation
 Diskless workstations make the workstation-server model more popular than the
workstation model for building distributed computing system
• As shown in Figure, workstation-server model consists of a few minicomputers
and several workstations interconnected by a communication network
 The file system to be used by these workstations must be implemented by a
diskful workstation or by a minicomputer equipped with a disk for file storage
 For reasons, such as higher reliability and better scalability, multiple servers are
often used for managing the resources in a distributed computing system
eg: multiple file servers for managing the files of all the users in the system

Continued…
48
Advantages : As compared to the workstation model, the workstation-server model has several
advantages.

 It is much cheaper to use a few minicomputers.

 Diskless workstations are also preferred to diskful workstations from a system
maintenance point of view
 Since all files are managed by the file servers, users have the flexibility to use any
workstation and access the files irrespective of currently log-in.
 Due to request-response protocol, this model does not need a process
migration facility, which is difficult to implement.
 A user has guaranteed response time because workstations are not used for
executing remote processes.

49
4. Processor-Pool Model

Figure: Processor-Pool Model 50

 The processor-pool model is based on the observation that most of the time a
user does not need any computing power but once in a while he or she may need
a very large amount of computing power for a short time

 The processors are pooled together to be shared by the users as needed

 The pool of processors consists of a large number of microcomputers and

minicomputers attached to the network

 Each processor in the pool has its own memory to load and run a system
program or an application program of the distributed computing system

Continued…

51
 As shown in the figure, in the pure processor-pool model, the processors
in the pool have no terminals attached directly to them
• users access the system from terminals that are attached to the
network via special devices (small diskless workstations or graphic
terminals)

 A special server (called a Run Server) manages and allocates the

processors in the pool to different users on a demand basis
• When a user submits a job for computation, an appropriate number
of processors are temporarily assigned to his or her job by the run
server.
 Examples of Processor Pool Model
• Amoeba, Plan 9 and Cambridge Distributed Computing System

Continued…
52
Advantages:
 In this model, a user does not log onto a particular machine but to the system as
a whole.
• . This is in contrast to other models in which each user has a home machine
(e.g. a workstation or minicomputer)
 As compared to the workstation-server model, the processor-pool model allows
better utilization of the available processing power of a distributed computing
system.
• This is because the entire processing power of the system is available for use
by the currently logged-on users.
 The processor pool model provides greater flexibility than the workstation-server
model in the sense that the system's services can be easily expanded
Disadvantage:
 Unsuitable for high performance interactive applications because of the slow
speed of communication between computer with application program &
interactive terminal
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5. Hybrid Model

 Out of the four models described above, the workstation-server model, is the
most widely used model for building distributed computing systems as a large
number of computer users only perform simple interactive tasks such as editing
jobs, sending electronic mails, and executing small programs.

 In a working environment that has groups of users who often perform jobs
needing massive computation, the processor-pool model is more attractive and
suitable.

• To combine the advantages of both the workstation-server and processor-pool

models, a hybrid model may be used to build a distributed computing system.
Continued…

54
 The hybrid model is based on the workstation-server model but with the addition
of a pool of processors.

• The processors in the pool can be allocated dynamically for computations that
are too large for workstations or that require several computers concurrently for
efficient execution.

 In addition to efficient execution the hybrid model gives guaranteed response to

interactive jobs by allowing them to be processed on local workstations of the
users.

 But the hybrid model is more expensive to implement than the workstation-
server model or the processor-pool model.

55
 Types of Distributed Systems
• This discussion of the types of DS, makes distinction between distributed
computing systems, distributed information systems, and distributed embedded
systems
1. Distributed Computing Systems
• It is an important class of distributed systems used for high-performance
computing tasks.
• It can be roughly divided into two subgroups as:

 Cluster Computing System

 Grid Computing System

Distributed Computing Systems Continued

56 ..
• Cluster Computing Systems
 Cluster computing systems are popular for price/performance ratio of personal
computers and workstations.
 eg: It is financially and technically attractive to build a supercomputer using off-the-
shelf technology by simply hooking up a collection of relatively simple computers in a
high-speed network.
 Cluster computing is used for parallel programming in which a single (compute
intensive) program is run in parallel on multiple machines.

Figure: An example of a cluster computing system.

 Each cluster consists of a collection of compute nodes that are controlled and accessed
by means of a single master node.
 A characteristic feature of cluster computing is its homogeneity. 57
• Grid Computing Systems
 Grid computing systems have a high degree of heterogeneity: no assumptions are
made concerning hardware, OS, networks, administrative domains, security
policies, etc.
 Resources from different organizations are brought together to allow the
collaboration of a group of people or institutions.
 Such a collaboration is realized in the form of a virtual organization.
 The people belonging to the same virtual organization have access rights to the
resources (super computers, storage facilities, databases, sensors etc) that are
provided to that organization.

Grid Computing Systems Continued ..

58
 Figure : A layered architecture for grid computing systems.

 The architecture consists of four layers.

 The lowest fabric layer provides interfaces to local resources at a specific site.
 The connectivity layer consists of communication protocols for supporting
grid transactions that span the usage of multiple resources.
 The resource layer is responsible for managing a single resource.
 The collective layer deals with handling access to multiple resources and
typically consists of services for resource discovery, allocation and scheduling
of tasks onto multiple resources, data replication, and so on.
 The application layer consists of the applications that operate within a
virtual organization and which make use of the grid computing environment. 59
Distributed Information Systems

• Distributed Transaction Processing: It works across different servers using

multiple communication models. The four characteristics that transactions have:
 Atomic: the transaction taking place must be indivisible to the others.
 Consistent: The transaction should be consistent after the transaction has
been done.
 Isolated: A transaction must not interfere with another transaction.
 Durable: Once an engaged transaction, the changes are permanent.

Distributed Transaction Processing Continued…

60
Fig: Distributed Transaction Processing

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• Enterprise Application Integration
• It is the process of bringing different enterprises/businesses together.
• The databases and workflows associated with enterprise/business applications
ensure that the business uses information consistently and that changes in data
done by one business application are reflected correctly in another’s.
• In particular, application components should be able to communicate directly with
each other and not merely by means of the request/reply behavior that was
supported by transaction processing systems.
• The main idea was that existing applications could directly exchange information,
as shown in Fig.

62
Distributed Pervasive Systems
• a distributed pervasive system is part of our surroundings.
• An important feature is the general lack of human administrative control.
• The following three requirements for pervasive applications:

1. Embrace contextual changes: device must be continuously be aware of the

fact that its environment may change all the time.

2. Encourage ad hoc composition: many devices in pervasive systems will be

used in very different ways by different users.

3. Recognize sharing as the default: The devices generally join the system in
order to access (and possibly provide) information to easily read, store,
manage, and share information.

63
 Hardware Concept in D.S.

• Two Types:
1. Multiprocessor System
i. Private Memory Architecture
ii. Shared Memory Architecture

2. Multicomputer System

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1. Multiprocessor System
It is a computer system with two or more central processing units (CPUs)
share full access to a common RAM.

Fig: Private Memory Architecture Fig: Shared Memory Architecture

65
2. Multicomputer System:
It is a computer system with multiple processors that are connected together to
solve a problem. Each processor has its own memory and it is accessible by that
particular processor and those processors can communicate with each other via an
interconnection.

Fig: Multicomputer System

Summary Continued….
66
Summary Continued….
67
68
 Software Concept in D.S.

• Software of D.S. means the selection of different Operating System platforms.

• The Operating System is the interaction between user and the hardware.

• There are three largely used Operating System types:

1. Distributed Operating System

2. Network Operating System

3. Middleware Operating System

69
1. Distributed Operating System

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• A distributed operating system is one that looks to its users like an ordinary
centralized operating system but runs on multiple, independent central processing
units (CPUs).
• It hides the existence of multiple computers and provides a single-system image
to its users. (It makes a collection of networked machines act as a virtual
uniprocessor)
•In this, there is a single system wide operating system and each computer of the
distributed computing system runs a part of this global operating system.
(The processes and several resources are managed globally).
•Fault tolerance capability is usually very high as compared to that of a network
operating system.
• This OS has scalability problem as it supports only limited no of computers with
shared resources.
• Examples: AIX , Solaris , Mach/OS, LOCUS
• Applications: Automated Banking System, Railway Reservation System.

71
2. Network Operating Systems
• The users view the DS as a collection of distinct machines connected by a
communication subsystem. (The users are aware of the fact that multiple
computers are being used).
•Each computer of the Distributed Computing System has its own local operating
system. There is essentially no coordination at all among the computers.
• It provides little or no fault tolerance capability.
• It fails to provide single coherent view of the system.
• Examples: Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X

72
3. Middleware Operating Systems
• As distributed OS has lack of scalability & Network OS fails to provide a
single coherent view, a new layer between these two is called Middleware OS.
• Middleware is an intermediate layer of software between the application and the
network.
• It is used in distributed systems to provide common services, such as
authentication, authorization, compilation for best performance on particular
architectures, input/output translation, and error handling.
• It has common set of services for local applications & independent set of
services for remote applications.
• It supports heterogeneity where user gets freedom to write the application using
any supported language under any platform.
• eg: Java Remote Method Invocation (RMI)

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 Services Offered by Middleware
• Naming Service: Used to locate objects/interfaces
• Persistence Service: used to store distributed objects permanently on to data
store.
• Messaging Service: used to send or receive messages in terms of request response
primitive
• Querying Service: used to query on distributed objects
• Concurrency Service: used to share and access the resources concurrently
• Security Service: used to provide security to the various shared resources.

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 Client Server Model

Fig A: The Client Server Model

Fig B: The Client Server Interaction 75

• The above client-server model in fig. A uses connectionless Request-Reply
protocol thus reduces overhead of the connection oriented TCP/IP or ISO
protocol.
• The Request-Reply protocol works as follows:
 The client requesting the service sends a request message to the server.
 The server completes the task and returns the result indicating that it has
performed the task or returns an error message indicating that task has not
been performed.
• Fig B shows client-server interaction.
• The model is simple in use as it needs no connection.
• The reply serves as acknowledgement to the request.

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• Client-Server Addressing:
Client should know server address for communicating with it.
• Machine Addressing:
• Client sends the address as a part of the message which is extracted by the server.
• If multiple processes running on the server, the process ID should be sent as a part of server.
• Process Addressing:
• In this message is sent to the processes and not to the machines.
• Two part name- one is machine id & other is process id.
• The client uses the machine ID to locate the current machine & the server uses the process id
to locate the process on that machine.
• Name Server Addressing:
• An extra machine is used to map ASCII level names to machine address.
• The process addressing techniques are as follows:
• Hardwire the machine number into client code.
• Processes pick random address & the machine address is located by broadcast method.

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Fig: Addressing Techniques
78
• Client-Server Implementation

AYA: Are You Alive, IAA- I Am Alive 79

References:
Text Books:
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum and Maarten Van Steen, “Distributed Systems: Principles and
Paradigms”, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education, 2017.
• George Coulouris, Jean Dollimore, Tim Kindberg, “Distributed Systems: Concepts
and De- sign”, 5th Edition, Pearson Education, 2011.
• Sunita Mahajan & Seema Shah, “Distributed Computing”, Second Edition, Oxford
Higher Education

Reference Books:
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum and Maarten Van Steen, “Distributed Systems: Principles
and Paradigms”, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education, 2017.
• M. L. Liu, “Distributed Computing Principles and Applications”, 2nd Edition, Pearson
Addison Wesley, 2004.
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