VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY

UNIT-I : General Veterinary Parasitology

Dr. Kamal Hashan Bulbul

Assistant Professor-cum-Junior Scientist (SG)
Division of Veterinary Parasitology
F.V.Sc. & A.H., SKUST-K, Shuhama
What is parasitology?
• dependence of one organism on another.
• phenomenon of parasitism.
• embraces the fields of biochemistry, physiology, cell biology
immunology and pharmacology.
• host-parasite interaction
• Parasitology is largely a study of symbiosis, or, literally, “living
together.”
• Helminthology
•Immunoparasitology
• Entomology
•Molecular parasitology
• Acarology
• Protozoology
• Malcology
What is parasite

• Greek word “parasitos”.

• “para” means beside and “sitos” means food.

• A parasite is an organism, a plant or animal which lives in or

upon another living organism (host) and draws its nutrient
directly and get shelter.

• In animal association one species lives whole or part of its life,

on or within another species and is metabolically dependent,
directly or indirectly, on it to some degree.

• The former is known as a parasite and the later host.

Types of parasites:

1. According to the duration of the parasite on/in the host

• Temporary parasite: mosquito, Gastrophilus, flea
• Permanent parasite: Liver fluke, Malaria).
2. According to degree of parasitism
i. Facultative parasites are not normally parasitic but can
become so when they are accidentally eaten or enter a wound
or other body orifice.
• The parasite lives a parasitic or free-living existence when
opportunity arises.
• A facultative parasite retains the capacity of independent (non-
parasitic) existence, but if an opportunity presents itself, it can
adopt the parasitic life (larvae of house fly, soil amoebae).
ii. Obligatory parasite/ obligate parasite: they cannot
complete their life cycle without spending at least part of
the time in a parasitic relationship.
• However, many obligate parasites have free-living stages
outside any host, including some periods of time in the
external environment within a protective eggshell or cyst.

• The parasite cannot exist without a parasitic life in the host.

• An obligate parasite has lost its capacity to lead an

independent existence; it has to have a host or succession of
hosts to live on/ in without which it cannot survive (liver
fluke).
3. According to habitat

• lice, ticks, fly, flea

Ectoparasite: • - infestation

Endoparasite. • Helminths, Protozoa

• –infection
 Endoparasites are 4 types

Intracellular parasite: Intercellular parasites:

Babesia, Plasmodium, found inside Trypanosoma, Fasciola, Ascaris
the RBC

Erratic or aberrant
parasites: Incidental parasites:
Ascaris lumbricoides in sheep
Fasciola, when found in lungs,
kidneys
 4. According to types of host required in life cycle of
parasites

i. Monoxenous parasites: They live only one type of parasite

host during the course of their normal life cycle, e.g.
coccidia, hookworms, amoebae.
ii. Heteroxenous parasites: Parasites live in two or more types
of hosts during the course of their normal life cycle, e.g.
trematodes, cestodes, malaria etc.
iii. Stenoxenous parasites: They have narrow host range, e.g.
coccidian, human malaria, hookworms, nodular worms.
iv. Euryxenous parasites: They have broad or wide host range,
e.g. Trymanosoma, Dracunculus, amphistome
5. According to Pathogenicity:

• Pathogenic parasites : Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus,

Fasciola, Theilaria
• Non-pathogenic parasites: Entamoeba coli

6. According to the development in the host:

• Proliferous parasite : Theilaria, Babesia

• Non-proliferous parasite: Helminths
7. According to size of the parasite:

• Macroparasites : Trematode, cestodes, nematodes and

arthropods
• Microparasites : Protozoan

8. According to the transmission to man or animals:

• Zoonotic parasites : Fasciolopsis buski, Echinococcus,

Trichinella
• Non-zoonotic parasites : Ascardia, Oesophagostomum
10. According to the host specificity

• Host specific parasites: The parasites whose host range is

confined to either one species of the host or closely related of
species of host, e.g. Wuchereria bancrofti in man; Plasmodium
vivax is specific to human beings.

• Non-host specific parasites are those parasites whose is not

confined or limited to one species of the host and do not show
any marked preference for one species or group of related
species of host.
• A non-host specific parasite has broad host spectrum, it does
and can infect a wide range of different species of hosts even
unrelated (Fasciola, Toxoplasma) .
11. According to the laying stages by the parasites

• Oviparous parasites: female lay eggs, e.g. Ascaris, Ascardia,

Ancylostoma.

• Ovo-viviparous parasites: female lay eggs which are containing

fully developed larvae to hatch, Habronema.

• Viviparous parasites: the eggs are hatched in the uterus of the

female and larvae passed out, e.g. Filarid worms, Dirofilaria imittis ,
Seteria spp. Onchocerca spp.

• Pupiparous parasites are those parasites in the egg hatch and

larvae developed in the uterus and when passed out side they are
ready to pupate, e.g. Hippobosca, Melophaga, Pseudolynchia.
12. Other parasites
• Hyperparasites are those parasites which may themselves be
parasitized on the other parasites, e.g. Histomonas meleagridis in
the eggs and larvae of Heterakis gallinae; Nosema helminthorum
in the Moniezia; Hhymenopterous insect on ticks.

• Pseudoparasites are those objects which are mistaken for

parasites, e.g. small thread for Trichostrongylus.

• Protelean parasites are refer to insects that begin the juvenile

phase of their lives as parasites and ultimately destroy or
consume their host to emerge as free-living adult. Only immature
stages are parasitic. Mermithid nematodes and hairworms
(Phylum Nematomorpha,) may also be considered protelean
parasites.
 Host:
A host is usually larger organism which harbours the parasites
and provides the nourishment and shelter.

• Definitive host/ Final host: is that species of animal or host in

which sexually mature or sexually multiplicative stages of the
parasite occur.
• It harbours the adult stages of parasites,
• e.g. cattle for Fasciola, sheep for Haemonchus
• Definitive hosts are often but not necessarily vertebrates;
malarial parasites, Plasmodium spp., reach sexual maturity
and undergo fertilization in mosquitoes, which are therefore
by definition their definitive hosts, whereas vertebrates are
the intermediate hosts
 Intermediate host

• It is an invertebrate or a vertebrate which harbours the larval or

asexual stages of the parasite and an integral part of its life cycle
without which it will not be completed.
• An intermediate host is one that is required for parasite
development but one in which the parasite does not reach sexual
maturity., e.g. snail in trematodes
• Depending upon the species of the parasite there may be first,
second, third intermediate hosts.
• First intermediate host: It is the first host parasitized by larval
stages of the parasite, e.g. cyclops for Diphylobothrium latum
• Second intermediate host: It is the host parasitized by the larval
stages developed in first intermediate host. These larval stages in
this host further developed and normally reached to infective
stages of the parasite, e.g. fish for Diphylobothrium latum
Transport host: The host which transfer the infective agent,
without any development in its body from place to place.

A transport host is like an intermediate host, but it is not

essential to its life cycle. It may accidentally ingest the eggs,
larvae, or other infective stages of the parasite, but will not
develop in this host and are ejected in its faeces.

Chicken and pig can probably serve as transport host for

Trichuris trichuria. Earth worms act as transport host for
Ascaridia galli
A paratenic or transport host is one in which the parasite
does not undergo any development but in which it remains
alive and infective to another host.

Paratenic hosts may bridge an ecological gap between the

intermediate and definitive hosts.

A paratenic host like a transport host, differ from it in one

respect; once the eggs or larval stages of the parasite are
ingested by the this host, they are unable to leave its body as
the get encapsulated in the tissues. These trapped parasites
can only reach the definitive host when it feeds on a such
paratenic host (garden lizard vis-à-vis Spirocerca lupi).
Reservoir host: The host which harbours the parasite and
serves as an important source of infection to other susceptible
hosts, e.g. Antelope, zebra for Trypanosoma.

Any animal that harbors an infection that can be transmitted to

humans is called a reservoir host, even if the animal is a
normal host of the parasite. Examples are rats and wild
carnivores with Trichinella spiralis , dogs with Leishmania spp.,
and armadillos with Trypanosoma cruzi

Carrier host: The host which harbors the residual parasites in

latent phase without showing clinical symptoms of infection,
e.g. Trypanosoma evansi in bovine for horse and camel.
• Natural host: The host which is naturally infected with certain species of the
parasites, e.g. cattle for Fasciola gigantica.
• They are those hosts in which a particular parasite(s) can live and develop
easily. It is due to host specificity, e.g. dog for Ancylostoma caninum and
Toxocara canis.
• Unnatural host: They are those hosts in which a particular parasite(s) cannot
live and develop easily.
• If the parasites enter such host then either
1. They are killed immediately
2. They may be passed out of host.
3. They may enter into host tissue and migrate but do not develop.
4. They may undergo some development but will never mature.
5. They may enter into host tissues and remain infective

e.g. visceral larva migrans due to larvae of some dog nematodes in man;
cutaneous larva migrans due to larvae of dog nematodes in man; eosinophilic
meningitis in man due to rat lung worm. In this the above 3, 4, 5 conditions are
called parasitic impasse
Accidental host: The host in which the parasite is not
found. Sheep for Ascaris lumbricoides

Normal host: It is a definitive host which harbour the

parasite specific to it e.g. cattle for Fasciola gigantica

Abnormal host: the host which occasionally harbours

a parasite or its developing stages which usually does
not occur in it e.g. sheep for Ascaris lumbricoides
 Vector:
 A vector is usually an arthropod and is very similar to an
intermediate host in the sense that it also harbour the
developing stages of the parasites, but differs from it in one
significant respect, a vector actively transmits the parasite.
Vectors are two types
a) A mechanical vector is one that transmits mechanically the
parasite, without its development in the vector, to a host,
Surra (Trypanosoma evansi) by horse fly (Tabanus).
b) A biological vector is one in which the parasite either
develops or multiplies before it transmitted to a host,
malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) by mosquitoes
(Anopheles spp.)
 Animal association

The relationship between parasite and host which

live together can be described as

• symbiosis,
• commensalism,
• mutualism,
• phoresis and
• parasitism
 Symbiosis:
• Symbiosis is the close association between the parasite and host.
• Both are so dependent upon each other that one cannot live without
the help of other.
• Though mutually beneficial, both the partners are metabolically
dependent each other, hence their separate existence is not possible.
• The term symbiosis is the relationship wherein both partners benefit.
• Any two organisms living in close association, commonly one living in
or on the body of the other, are symbiotic, as contrasted with free
living.
• Usually the symbionts are of different species but not necessarily.
• Example of symbiosis- Zochlorella and Hydra: Zochlorella lives in the
cells of hydra, hence gets the protection. Secondly the CO 2 produced
by the hydra is taken and utilized in food making and release O 2 by
Zochlorella which is utilized by hydra
 Commensalism:
• In commensalism one partner benefits from the association,
but the host is neither helped nor harmed.
• The term means “eating at the same table,” and many
commensal relationships involve feeding on food “wasted” or
otherwise not consumed by the host.
• So, commensalism is an association in which the parasite only
derives benefit without causing any injury to the host. That
means one partner, the parasite is benefited and the other,
the host is neither benefited nor harmed.
• No metabolic dependence exists between the partners.
• Example: Pilot fish (Naucrates spp.) and remoras or Pilot fish
and shark; Entamoeba coli and Trichomonas spp. live in
intestine of animal are the some example of commensalism.
 Mutualism:
• The parasite and host mutually beneficial, where no metabolic
dependence exists between the partners.
• It describes a relationship in which both partners benefit from the
association.
• It is a relationship between two different species which live
together for mutual benefit, but this relationship is not obligatory
for them i.e. if separated both of them can survive independently
e.g. sea anemone and hermit crab.
• Sea anemone lives on the back of crab. The anemone is benefited
by morsels of food torn off by the crab, while the crab is protected
by the bulk and stinging tentacles of anemone e.g. 2 Scorpion fish
and hydroids
• Scorpion fish (venomous fish) which lives at the bottom of the sea is
covered with a crust of hydroids, which camouflage it so that it can
seize its prey easily. Being provided with a dwelling place probably
benefits hydroids.
• Termites and their intestinal protozoan fauna are an excellent
example of mutualism. Termites cannot digest cellulose
because they cannot synthesize and secrete the enzyme
cellulase. The myriad flagellates in a termite’s intestine,
however, synthesize cellulase and consequently digest wood
eaten by their host. The termite uses molecules excreted as a
by-product of the flagellates’ metabolism. If we kill the
flagellates by exposing termites to high temperature or high
oxygen concentration, then the termites starve to death, even
though they continue to eat wood.
• In herbivores ruminal flora help in digestion of cellulose in
ruminants and in return get protection and food from the
animals.
 Phoresis:
• Phoresis exists when two symbionts are merely “traveling
together,” and there is no physiological or biochemical
dependence on the part of either participant.
• It implies a temporary relationship, usually with no metabolic
dependence, in which one organism transports or shelter
another.
• Usually one phoront is smaller than the other and is
mechanically carried about by its larger companion. Bacteria
and amoebae travel on the legs of fly.
 Predatorism :

It is usually a short term relationship or association between

two individuals in which one (the predator) benefit at the
expense of the other (the prey).
• Predator: It is an individual which temporarily attacks and
destroys animals or plants in order to obtain food, usually
feed on smaller or weaker organism which are their prey e.g.
cat for rat

• Prey: The smaller or weaker organism or animals are usually

eaten up by the predator e.g. rat for cat.
 Predator Parasite
i) There is no physiological i) There is physiological
association between the association between the
predator and prey. host and the parasites
ii) The predator kills the prey ii) The intention of parasite
iii)The predator is bigger and is not to kill the host
stronger than the parasite iii)The parasite is smaller
and weaker than the host
 Parasitism:
• It is a relationship in which one of the participants, the
parasite, either harms its host or in some sense lives at the
expense of the host.

• Parasites may cause mechanical injury, such as boring a hole

into the host or digging into its skin or other tissues, stimulate
a damaging inflammatory or immune response, or simply rob
the host of nutrition.

• Parasitism is an association, in which the parasite derives

benefit from the host and always causes injury to the host,
e.g. Haemonchus contortus and goat.
 Parasitosis:
 It is an association between two individuals in which the infective agent
injures the host causes symptoms and lesions of the disease.

 In this type of parasitism, the disease or infection is denoted by putting suffix-

osis (plural oses) to the name of the parasite e.g. Theileria + osis=
Theileriosis, Fasciola + osis= Fasciolosis. Schistosoma +osis= Schistosomosis.

Parasitiasis:

 It is an association between two individuals in which one is potentially

pathogenic but does not cause symptoms of the disease.

 In this type of parasitism, the disease or infection is denoted by putting

suffix – iasis (plural –iases) in the name of the parasite with same
changes, e.g Theilaria +iasis= theilariasis, Fasciola+iasis= fascioliasis).
 Parasitosis Parasitiasis

1. The host is not capable of 1. The host is capable to

repair the damage. repair the damage.

2. The symptoms are 2. The symptoms are not

noticeable. noticeable.

3. It is a state of imbalance. 3. It is a state of balance.

Coccidiosis, Coccidiasis,
Trypanosomosis, Trypanosomiasis,
Babesiosis Babesiasis
 Parasitoids

They are insects, typically wasps or flies (orders Hymenoptera

and Diptera, respectively), whose immature stages feed on
their host’s body, usually another insect, but finally kill the
host.
Parasitoids resemble predators in this regard, but they only
require a single host individual.
 Hypobiosis: It is an interruption in development of nematode
larvae or arrested larval development of nematode within the
host, occurs seasonally, usually at the when conditions are not
favourable to the development and survival for free living
stages, e.g. such condition commonly seen in

• Ostertagia infection in ruminants;

• Trichstrongylus in horses and
• Hyostrongylus rubidus in pigs.

 Diapause: It is an adaptation phenomenon whereby

ectoparasites survive in adverse conditions by a cessation of
growth and metabolism at a particular stage, e.g. Hypoderma
bovis
 Modes of transmission of Parasites
• Parasites: Parasitic stages enter into the body of host
through
1. Oral route: Infective stages of the most of parasites enter
into body of the hosts through contaminated food and
water e.g. Ascaris, Fasciola, Moniezia, Entamoeba. etc.
2. Skin Penetration
I) Direct skin penetration II) penetration through
blood sucking arthropods
• Infective stages of some parasites enter into body of hosts
through skin penetration e.g. Schistosoma, Ancylostoma
• Infective stages of some parasites enter into body of hosts
through blood sucking arthropods e.g. Trypansoma,
Leishmania, Babesia, Theileria, filarial worms
3. Nostrils: The first stage larvae of Oestrus ovis enter into nasal
and frontal sinuses through nostrils.

4. Veneral transmission: Some parasitic infections are

transmitted from one host to another through coitus e.g.
Trypanosoma equiperdum, Trichomonas vaginalis,
Tritrichomonas foetus

5. Autoinfection: When an infected host himself is the direct

source of infection/re-exposure, it is called autoinfection. It
may external viz. from perineal or anal region to mouth via
fingers e.g. in man or internal e.g. Hymenolepis nana,
Trichinella spiralis
6. Direct contact: The lice and mange mites are transmitted
from one host to another through direct contact.

7. Transplacental infection: The parasitic stages present in tissues

of mother may get activated due to hormones of pregnancy,
reach the blood stream and when the mothers blood passes
through, foetus, it becomes infected before birth e.g. Toxocara
canis, Ancylostoma caninum

8. Transmammary infection: Parasitic stages present in tissues

of mother may get activated due to hormones of lactation, enter
the blood stream, reach mammary glands and transmitted to
newly born young ones via milk e.g. Toxocara canis, Ancylostoma
caninum
 Rules and Regulations of international code of
Zoological Nomenclature
• The animal parasites are named according to international code of
zoological nomenclature based on the principle of “Binomial
Nomenclature of Linnaeus (1875)” It is a disciplinary body to arrange
different organisms into various groups and subgroups.

Some rules & regulations

i. Different species having some similar features are grouped under one group
known as genus.
• Similar genera are grouped under family
• Similar families under order
• Similar order under class
• Similar Classes under Phylum
• Similar Phyla under Subkingdom
• Similar Subkingdom under kingdom
ii. Zoological Nomenclature is independent of botanical terminology
iii. The designation of genera is uninomial, for species binomial & for
sub-species trinomial.
iv. The generic name always begins with capital letters while the
species name always begins with small letters.
v. The scientific names of organisms are in Latin.
vi. The generic species and sub-species names are printed in italics
and when hand written, they are underlined, they are written
separately.
vii. The author of the scientific name of parasite/organism is the
person who first publishes it. It is desirable to cite the author’s
name following the scientific name, separated by a comma from
the year in which it was published. E.g. Taenia Linnaeus, 1758
viii. If a species is transferred to other than original genus, then the
name of the original author is placed in parentheses followed by
the name of new author e.g. Taenia taeniaeformis (Bastch, 1786)
Wolfhuget, 1911.
Standard Nomenclature of Animal Parasites Diseases (S N
O A P A D)
• The expert committee appointed by WAAVP formulated
a uniform and proper terminology to denominate
animal parasitic diseases or infection as follows
1. The suffix osis to be added to the stem of the parasite
taxon after deletion of one or two last letters. e.g.

• Trypanosoma Trypanosomosis
• Fasciola Fasciolosis
• Ascaris Ascariosis
• Hypoderma Hypodermosis
2. The stem is formed from the genitive where taxa end with
“X” in the nominative.

• Nominative Genetive Disease name

• Endolimax Endolimacis Genitive Noun pronoun
or adjective used to show possessiveness
Endolimacosis

• Pulex Pulicis Pulicosis

• Demodex Demodicis Demodicosis

• Dispharynx Dispharyngos Dispharyngosis

• The disease name is formed from the stem of genitive

3. In case of Cyathostoma (Syngamidae in order to
differentiate it from Cyathostomum.

• Cyathostoma Cyathostomatosis

• (Syngamidae) Cyathostomum
• Cyathostomum
Cyathostomosis
• (horse strongyle)
4. In some cases disease name is formed from the full
generic name of the parasite by adding suffix
__________osis

• Hepatozoon Hepatazoonosis
• Multiceps Multicepsosis
• Ascarops Ascaropsosis
• Loa Loaosis
• Dermacentor Dermacentorosis
• Argas Argasosis
5. Well established disease terms nor formed from the
taxonomomic name of the parasite, such as malaria,
filarial, surra, nagana, Myiasis, scabies, larval migrans etc.
can also be used as an alternative to SNOAPAD

6. The suggestion of using the suffix______osis to denote

parasitic disease with apparent clinical signs and the
suffix___ iasis to denote subclinical infection is not
accepted.
 General Harmful effects of parasites
• All the parasites draw the nutrient from the host but the
mere presence of parasite does not imply disease in the
host.
• The parasites produce different types of effects on hosts;
some are harmless; some are mildly pathogenic and few
are highly pathogenic and fatal.

• The harmful effects of parasites on their hosts depend on a

number of intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

• In general the harmful effects of parasites on their hosts

can be summarized as follows.
1. Utilization of host nutrients
• Parasites compete for the • Some parasites absorb
host nutrients and the only some specific
host suffers from constituents selectively
malnutrition e.g. ascarids e.g. Diphyllobothrium
and tapeworms utilize latum can absorb 10-50
the digested food of the times more B12 as
host and the host suffers compared to other
from malnutrition. tapeworms and the host
suffers from megaloblastic
anemia.
2. Effects on the host:
1. Decreased food utilization by the host; it may cause a
reduced appetite/ anorexia with a concomitant reduction of
food intake, an increased passage of food through the
digestive tract or a decreased synthesis of protein in skeletal
muscle.
2. Changes in the absorptive surface of the intestine may result
in marked alteration in efflux and influx of water and Na+ and
Cl- ions in to the bowel and in morphological and biochemical
changes in epithelial cells and their microvilli.
3. Feeding on body tissues (ticks, mites), sucking blood
(mosquitoes, hookworms), lymph (midges) and exudates
(lung worm).

4. Removal of the host’s tissues and fluids by blood sucking

activities of certain nematodes (e.g. hookworms,
Haemonchus) and arthropods (e.g. ticks blood sucking flies)
and in some cases death of the host is directly attributed to
excessive loss of blood (e.g. acute Haemonchosis in sheep).
3. Utilization of hosts non nutrient substances:
• Some parasites feed on hosts tissues like blood, solid
tissues, liquefied tissues, body exudates etc. e.g. Lapage
(1958) estimated that each adult worm of Ancylostoma
caninum, A. duodenale and Necator americanus can suck
0.5 ml of blood per day
• while as one adult female of Ixodes ricinus can suck 1 ml of
blood leading to severe anemia in heavy infection.
• Some parasites like giant kidney worm and liver fluke feed
on solid tissues
• while some like larvae of blow flies liquefy the host tissue
and then feed on this liquefied tissue.
• Parasites like lung worms and larvae of Oestrus ovis feed
on exudates.
3. Mechanical Obstruction:

Some parasites cause mechanical obstruction of organs e.g.

large number of Ascarids in the intestine may get coiled
together leading to intestinal obstruction.

They may also enter the bile duct and block it.

Filarial worm Wuchereia bancrofti blocks the lymphatics leading

to elephantiasis.

Similarly RBC’s infected with Plasmodium falciparum and Babesia

bovis may stick to one another and then to brain capillaries
leading to obstruction of blood flow.
Causing mechanical obstruction in intestine (ascarids) bile ducts
(liver flukes) blood vessels (schistosomes), lymphatic (certain
filarids), bronchi (lung worms).

Causing distortion, displacement, erosion, rupture or

haemorrhage in organs, tissues and cells (hydatid, coocidia).

• Producing perforation in intestine (ascarids, hookworms,

strongyles, tapeworms).
4. Tissue damage

Some parasites cause destruction of host tissue

either or
at the time of entry into the during their migration in
body of host e.g. larvae of the body of host e.g.
hookworms and cercariae of Ascaris larvae and
schistosomes immature stages of Fasciola

or after reaching the site of predilection e.g. Eimeria

spp., Entamoeba histolytica, Babesia spp.
5. One of the most common effects of parasitism is
destruction of host’s tissues.

This may be by a mechanical action when, for example,

parasites or their larval stages migrate through or multiply in
tissues or organs, or when various organs of attachment
(e.g. head-spine or teeth, claws, sucker etc) are inserted into
the tissues as anchors.
 Destruction may be
pressure as a parasite
grows larger
(e.g. hydatid, coenurus),

or by blockage of
ducts such as

Lymph vessels to
Blood vessels to or intestinal canal to
produce oedema and
produce infarction produce necrosis and
elephantiasis
(Strongylus), rupture (ascarids)
(filariosis)
6. Tissue changes:

• Some parasites bring changes in tissues like hypertrophy,

hyperplasia, metaplasia and neoplacia
 Hypertrophy: means increase in cell size e.g. Babesiosis.
 Hyperplasia: means increase in cell number e.g. in chronic
fasciolosis causes hyperplasia of bile duct epithelium; E. stiedai
 Metaplasia: means change of one kind of tissue into another
type e.g. in paragonimosis alveolar cuboidal epithelium is
converted into fibroblast which forms a cyst around the
parasite.
 Neoplacia: It is a growth of cells resulting in the formation of a
tumor. It is a non-inflammatory growth which does not follow
the normal growth pattern. Neoplasing can be benign or
malignant.
• Examples of parasites which cause neoplasia are:
• Spirocerca lupi________________Oesophagus of dog
• Chlonorchis sinensi____________bile duct and liver of man.
• Cysticercus fasciolaris_____________rat liver
• Gongylonema neoplasticum ___________tongue of rat.
6. Effect of secretions and excretions of parasites on host:

The secretions and excretions of the parasite which are absorbed by

the host may cause toxicity to the host e.g.

Schistosome cercariae cause dermatitis due to their toxin i.e.

histamine.

Eimeria tenella toxin interferes with carbohydrate metabolism and

depletion of stored glycogen takes place.

Ancylostoma spp. produce anticoagulants which do not allow the

blood to coagulate.

Similarly ticks produce variety of toxins. E. histolytica produce toxins

which are cytotoxic for the hamster kidney cells
7. Autoimmunity
• The immune response of host against some parasitic protozoa
like Babesia, Trypanosoma and Theileria cause destruction of
infected cells as well as non-infected normal blood cells.
• Parasites also reduce resistance of host to other diseases.

8. Disease transmission
• Some ectoparasites like blood sucking flies and ticks may also
act as vectors of various bacterial, viral, rickettsial and
protozoan diseases.
9. Effect of parasites on sex
• Crab parasite Sacculina eats the gonads of the crab and the
males loose secondary sex characters i.e. it brings a sort of
parasitic castration.
Modifications undergone by the parasites
to lead a successful parasitic life
A). Physical or instrumental modifications

1. Development sophisticated organs for attachment:

Parasites in the intestine may be thrown out by the
peristaltic movements of the host, so they have developed
sophisticated organs with the help of which they remain
attached to the intestinal wall e.g. tapeworms have
developed hooks and suckers for attachment.
• Similarly some parasites have developed hooks on body
surface e.g. Gnathostoma.

•
2. Development of sophisticated organs for feeding e.g.
hookworms have developed teeth and bulbous
oesophagus.
• With the help of teeth they cut the capillaries and strong
bulbous oesophagus acts as a pump to suck blood

3. Simplification of body structures: e.g. tapeworms have

lost the alimentary canal and developed flat body so that
they can absorb the digested food of host by osmosis.
• Similarly helminth parasites have lost their locomotory
organs.
•
B). Biochemical modifications

i). Some Parasites produce anticoagulant enzymes e.g.

Haemonchus and hookworms

ii). Some parasites produce proteolytic enzymes which

liquefy the host tissues and the parasites absorbs this
liquefied tissue e.g. Entamoeba histolytica.

iii.) Most of the parasites have developed biochemical

receptors on cuticle for perceiving biochemical
changes in hosts atmosphere
C). Reproductive modifications:
• Since the parasitic life is full of dangers as they have to pass from one
host to another and thus they have to meet a lots of hazards and there
is danger that large number of off springs may perish on their way.
• To compensate this, they have modified their reproductive systems in
such a way that they produce large number of odd springs so that few
of them will be able to complete their life cycle.
• The various reproductive modifications undergone by parasites are as
follows.

i. Some parasites produce large number of eggs e.g. one female Ascaris
produces two lakh eggs/day.
ii. Some parasites have become hermaphordite to produce large
number of off springs e.g. most of trematodes and cestodes.
iii. Multiplication of larval stages called as padeogeny e.g. Fasciola.
 Clinical and Parasitological periods

Incubation period: a period from time of infection till the first

appearance of symptoms e.g. fever in malaria, surra, babesiosis

Period of symptoms: period from the time of first symptoms till

symptoms subside

Convulsant period: period from time of maximum symptoms till the time
of complete recovery.

Repalse: Reappearance of symptoms after a gap of asymptomatic period

and without reinfection is known as relapse e.g. human malaria.

Latent period: Asymptomatic period between two relapses is known as

lalent period e.g. Human malaria
 Prepatent period (PPP) : period from the time of infection till the
eggs or cysyts or other stages are seen in faces, urine, blood etc. as
the case may be.
It indicates the time taken by the parasite to migrate, grow, mature
and reproduce and this need not to be incubation period e.g. in
fasciolosis maximum symptoms are seen during migration.
Similarly immature paramphistomes are more pathogenic than
mature ones i.e. incubation period in above 2 diseases is shorter
than prepatent period but in nasal schistosomosis incubation
period is longer than PPP.

Patent period: is the period from first appearance of parasitic stages

in faces, urine, blood etc. as the case may be till they completely
disappear. It indicates the longevity of adult parasite within the host.
 Host specificity

• It is the adoptability of certain species of parasites to certain

groups of hosts e.g. Haemonchus is found in sheep, goat and
cattle but it is not found in horses, donkey and mules.
• Some species are found in many hosts (Euryxenous parasites)
e.g. Fasciola hepatica is found in sheep, goat, cattle and wild
ruminants,
• while some species have got a narrow host range
(stenoxenaous) e.g. Schistosoma mansoni infects only man
and Eimeria bovis & E. zuernii infect only cattle.
• The mechanisms responsible for host specificity are not fully
known but various factors which are believed to play a role in
host specificity are:
1. Genetic:
• Certain hosts are susceptible to certain parasites e.g.
Haemonchus is found in ruminants but not in equines.
• Within the same species of host, different breeds vary in
susceptibility to certain parasites e.g. Bosindicus, breed of
cattle are resistant to haemoprotozoan infections as
compared to Bos taurus.
• Similarly red Masai breed of sheep in East Africa are more
resistant to Haemonchus contortus.
• Host specificity also depends on the host’s response to
invading parasites.
• If the hosts response is poor (cellular and humoral) to the
invading parasites it means that parasites body proteins are
less antagonistic.
2. Food habits:
• Food habits play an important role in determining the
susceptibility of various hosts to some parasites, e.g.
Diphyllobothriumis found in man, dog and cat but not in
herbivores.
3. Biochemical composition of host secretions:
• Bile is an important secretion which determines the host
specificity since most of the parasites enter into the body of
the host through mouth and bile of different species varies in
composition, so in unfavourable host it is the bile which kills
the parasitic stages and in favourable host it helps in
hatching/excystation.
• A gradation of concentration of bile occurs in different parts
of the intestine and different parasites
excyst/hatch/exsheath at different concentrations of bile and
thus has got different locations in intestine.
4. Geographical distribution:
• East coast fever occurs in cattle and buffaloes of East, Central
and South Africa due to restricted geographical distribution
of its vector tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus in these areas.
• Similarly it has been observed that same species of parasite
e.g. Schistoma mansoni utilizes different species of snail as its
intermediate host in different regions.
• In Africa this schistosome utilizes Biomphalaria globrata as
its I/H but in West Indies and South America Tropicarbiscenti-
metralis and Australor-bisglabratus acts its I/H.
5. Chemotectic response:
• The chemotectic response of parasites to various substances
secreted by tissues and organs of host may lead to
tissue/organ and host specificity e.g. it is said that young
flukes of D. dentriticum liberated from metacercariae in
small intestine find their way to bile ducts by different
stimuli originating in the liver.
 Immunity against parasites:
• Immunity is defined as a resistance to infection.
• There are multiple mechanisms in the body, which ensure
freedom from disease.
• These include:
 physical barriers that exclude invaders
 innate immunity that provides rapid initial protection
 acquired immunity that provides prolonged protection.
1. Physical barriers:
• Intact skin and mucous membranes serve as important non-
immunological physical barriers against invasion of the skin
and mucous membranes by variety of pathogens including
parasitic stages.
• Similarly the self cleansing process such as coughing,
sneezing, mucous flow in the respiratory tract, continuous
flow of tears that flush the conjunctiva, vomiting and
diarrhoea in the gastrointestinal tract and urine flow in the
urinary system include physical defenses.
• In the same way presence of an established normal flora on
the skin and in the intestine can easily out compete poorly
adopted pathogenic organisms.
2. Innate Immunity:
• It is the first non-specific defense mechanism encountered by the
invading pathogens.
• However certain species of hosts are naturally immune to some
parasites or it is an inherited non-immune mechanism of the host
defense against some pathogens to keep the animals free from
these pathogens e.g. equines are naturally immune to
Haemonchus contortus.
• The exact mechanisms for natural immunity are not fully known
but various factors such as behavioural characteristics, age, sex,
environmental and nutritional factors etc. are believed to play an
important role in natural immunity.
• The other factors that are responsible for non-specific defense
mechanism include phagocytosis, inflammation and complement
systems which play an important role in excluding pathogens.
3. Acquired immunity:
• It is an adaptive immune response specific for the inducing
antigen/ pathogen. It is of two types

Active acquired Passive acquired

immunity immunity

Here the immune Here the antibodies/ effector cells

system of the same are passively received by the host
host who is exposed to from an actively immunized animal
infection or via the transplacental way or via
vaccination produces colostrum or via blood transfusion
immune response or by injecting serum or
against the invading experimentally by transferring
agent. lymphoid cells.
 Active acquired immunity further divided into

Sterile Concomitant
Preimmunity
immunity immunity

It is a persistent low Even after the organisms

grade infection that have disappeared from the
gives resistance against body of the host, the animal
the subsequent heavy remains immune for some
infection e.g. Eimeria time e.g. in case of Theileria
parva infection.
 Concomitant
immunity

 it is a type of immune response in which the presence of adult

worms in the body of the host delays the development of larval
stages present in the tissues of the same host.
 This type of immune response has been seen in Schistosoma
mansoni infection in rhesus monkeys.
 This is probably due to antigenic mimicry of adult parasites within
the host tissues which prevents them from being killed or immunized
by the immune mechanisms of the host.
 Similarly in case of Cooperia curticei, development is inhibited at late
4th larval stage.
4. Autoimmunity:

• Destruction of normal body cells/ tissues by the body’s own

immune mechanisms is known as autoimmunity e.g.
destruction of cells infected with Babesia and Theileria by
immune response of the host may lead to destruction of non-
infected normal blood cells also.
 Effect of immune response of host on parasites:

i. In the immune hosts, establishment of parasite can be totally

inhibited e.g. Dictyocaulus viviparous.

ii. The normal development of parasite within the immunized

hosts may be inhibited e.g. development of Cooperia curticei is
inhibited the late 4th larval stage.

iii. Retarded migration of larvae through tissues and migration of

larvae through unusual routes.

iv. Encapsulation of larvae by various cell types.

v. Failure of parasites to reach site of predilection.

vi. The parasiotes donot grow as rapidly or reach to their
normal size e.g. Litomosoides carinii, Trichinella spiralis.

vii. The parasites develop anatomical abnormalities e.g.

Ostertagia fail to develop a vulvar flap when introduced into
calves that have been previously infected with same species.

viii. Production of few eggs by the parasites.

ix. Adult worms may be eliminated from the immunized

hosts gradually at more or less constant rate or less constant
rate i.e. immune hosts retain parasites for shorter periods.
 Evasion of immune response by parasites:

1. Immunosuppression
2. Antigenic variation
3. Hiding of surface antigens by coating themselves with host’s
histocompatibility antigens, serum antigens and blood group
antigens (molecular mimicry).
4. Release of soluble factors that
i. Inhibit complement activity
ii. Inhibit mast cell degranulation
iii. Inhibit lymphocyte proliferation
iv. Inhibit neutrophil chemotaxis.
5. Blocking antibody: An antibody that binds to target cell and prevents
its destruction.
6. transferase, which can neutralize host’s respiratory burst and
prevent surface structure against oxidation.