DRILLING FLUIDS

• Drilling fluid (also called drilling mud) is an essential part of the rotary drilling system.
• Since it is such an integral part of the drilling process, many of the problems
encountered during the drilling of a well can be directly, or indirectly, attributed to
the drilling fluids.
• Therefore these fluids must be carefully selected and/or designed to fulfill their role
in the drilling process.
• The cost of the mud can be as high as 10-15% of the total cost of the well.
• The consequences of not maintaining good mud properties may result in drilling
problems which will take a great deal of time and cost to resolve.
• An operating company will usually hire a service company to provide a mud engineer
on the rig to formulate, continuously monitor and, if necessary, treat the mud.
• The drilling and production personnel do not need a
detailed knowledge of drilling fluids, but they should
understand the basic principles governing their
behavior, and the relation of these properties to
drilling and production performance.
• The objectives of any mud program include:
1. To allow the target depth to be reached;
2. Minimize well costs;
3. Maximize production from the pay zone.
• The drilling fluid must be designed so that the physical
and chemical properties of the fluid allow these
functions (i.e., the primary functions) to be fulfilled.
• However, when selecting the fluid, there are
consideration undertaken:
the environmental impact of using the fluid
the cost of the fluid
the impact of the fluid on production from the pay
zone
Drilling Fluid Circulating System
Functions of Drilling Fluid
1. Remove and transport cuttings from bottom of the hole to the surface
through the annulus (i.e. clean the wellbore from cuttings and
removal of cuttings)
2. Exert sufficient hydrostatic pressure to reduce the probability of
having a kick (i.e. control of formation pressure)
3. Cool and lubricate the rotating drill string and drill bit
4. Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit
5. Maintain wellbore stability (i.e. keep new borehole open until closed)
6. Facilitate cementing and completing the well
Functions and Properties of Drilling Fluid
The table shows the relation between function and the physical/chemical property
of the drilling fluid
1. Remove and transport cuttings from
bottom of the hole
The mud must be designed such that it can:
• carry the cuttings to surface while circulating
• suspend the cuttings while not circulating
• drop the cuttings out of suspension at surface.
The rheological properties of the mud must be carefully engineered to
fulfill these requirements.
Cont’d
• The carrying capacity of the mud depends on the annular velocity, density
and viscosity of the mud.
• The ability to suspend the cuttings depends on the gelling (thixotropic)
properties of the mud.
• This gel forms when circulation is stopped and the mud is static.
• The drilled solids are removed from the mud at surface by mechanical
devices (Why?).
• It is not economically feasible to remove all the drilled solids before
recirculating the mud.
• However, if the drilled solids are not removed the mud may require a lot of
chemical treatment and dilution to control the rheological properties of the
mud.
 2. Prevent formation fluids flowing into the wellbore
• The hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud column must be high enough to prevent an
influx of formation fluids into the wellbore (kick, blowout).
• However, the pressure in the wellbore must not be too high or it may cause the formation to
fracture (fracture pressure, LOT).
• The flow of mud into the formation whilst drilling is known as lost circulation.
• The pressure in the wellbore will be equal to:
P = 0.052 x MW x TVD
where, P = hydrostatic pressure (psi); MW = mud density of the mud or mud weight (ppg);
TVD= true vertical depth of point of interest = vertical height of mud column (ft.)
• The density of the mud can be expressed in any of the following units: S.G.; psi/ft.; ppg
• The mud weight must be selected so that it exceeds the pore pressures but does not exceed
the fracture pressures of the formations being penetrated (density window).
• Barite, and in some cases Hematite, is added to viscosified mud as a weighting material.
These minerals are used because of their high density
3. Maintain wellbore stability
• There are many instability problems that can be faced while drilling (e.g.:
instable shales, lost circulation, highly permeable zones)
Shale instability can be caused by two mechanisms:
- The pore pressure of shale is higher than the borehole pressure exerted by
the column of mud
- Clays hydration by water contained in mud filtrate.
However;
• The shale instability caused by differential pressure can be overcome by
increasing mud weight.
• The clay hydration can be overcome by drilling with non-water base muds, or
treating mud with products which can reduce water ability to hydrate clays.
4. Cool and lubricate the drill bit
• The rock cutting process will, in particular with
Polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits, generate a great
deal of heat at the bit.
• Unless the bit is cooled, it will overheat and quickly wear out.
• The circulation of the drilling fluid will cool the bit and help
lubricate the cutting process.
5. Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the drill bit

• As fluid is circulated, the power of the mud pumps will be

expended in frictional pressure losses.
• The efficiency of the drilling process can be significantly
enhanced if approximately 65% of this power is expended at
the bit.
• The pressure losses in the system are a function of the
geometry of the system and the mud properties (e.g., yield
point, viscosity, density, etc.).
6. Facilitate cementing and completing the well

• Designing the mud properties properly helps to drill a

well into which the casing will be run and cemented
effectively.
• Running casing is easier in cleaned, smooth, in gauge
wellbore, and these issues are got by well-controlled
drilling fluids.
7. Formation evaluation
• Drilling is not just getting to target or reservoirs, it is also to collect
information about the formations to avoid problems and optimize
operations in next projects. The formations are studied and evaluated by
the methods:
 Cuttings evaluation
 Electric logs
 Coring
The cuttings are got at the surface and analyzed by the mud loggers and
geologist. Mud chemistry can affect the cuttings conditions and lead to
miss the information which can be collected by studying these cuttings.
The information gained by cores or logs can be affected by the filtration
properties of drilling fluids. Thicker filter make logging operations less
accurate and difficult. Filtrate invasion can mislead the results by cores.
 Drilling Fluids Properties
1. The viscosity
• The viscosity is defined as the resistance of fluid to flow.
The viscosity of drilling fluid is a function of:
- Viscosity of the continuous phase or the base liquid
- The size, shape and solids particles in the mud which is represent it by the plastic
viscosity
- The inter-particle force represents it by the yield point
• The plastic viscosity is the resistance to flow caused by the friction between solid
particles.
• The yield point is the resistance to the initial flow or the stress required to start
flowing. The yield point is measured under flowing conditions
• Reducing viscosity in any drilling fluid can be achieved by:
- Reduction of solids by mechanical treatment or dilution
- Neutralization of attractive forces between particles.
Drilling Fluids Properties
2. Mud weight or density
• The density is the weight per unit of volume.
• During operations mud weight has to be well
controlled and need adjustment. If the mud weight is
less than the required level of density to drilling safely
can permit the formation fluids to flow into the well
and lead to well control situation and if it is higher
than the appropriate level it can lead to lost
circulation situations.
Drilling Fluids Properties
3. Filter cake
• The filter cake is formed when mud solids deposit on the walls of the hole.
• The filtration is the loss of fluids from mud into the formation.
• Loss of drilling fluids in formation can lead to high water consumption and thick
filter cake which can cause a tight hole, increased torque and consequently lead
to stuck pipe.
4. Solids content
Solids can be:
- Added to the drilling fluid in order to increase viscosity or weight
- Accumulated in the fluid like drilled cuttings or disintegrated clay particles.
N.B; The treatment of solids before recirculation has to be effective to remove
undesired solids which do not contribute to beneficial properties.
 Drilling Fluids Properties
5. Gel strength
• Gel strength represents the attractive forces under static
conditions (non-flow conditions).
• Contrary to gel strength, the yield point represents the
attractive forces under flowing conditions.
• The gel strength gives an indication of the required pressure
to initiate flow after ceasing circulation for period of time.
Also, it gives an indication about the ability of the drilling fluid
to suspend cuttings when mud is stationary.
Classification of Drilling Fluids
The two most common types of drilling fluid are:
water based mud (WBM) and
oil based mud (OBM).
• Water-based muds are those drilling fluids in which the
continuous phase of the system is water.
• Oil-based muds are those in which the continuous phase is
oil.
N.B
• WBM’s are the most commonly used muds world-wide.
• The use of air as a drilling fluid is limited to areas where
formations are competent and impermeable.
Advantages:
higher penetration rates;
better hole cleaning;
and less formation damage.
Disadvantages:
air cannot support the sides of the borehole;
air cannot exert enough pressure to prevent formation fluids
entering the borehole.
Water Based Mud (WBM)
• Water based muds (WBMs) consist of a mixture of solids, liquids and
chemicals (i.e., additives).
• Some solids (clays) react with the water and chemicals in the mud and
are called active solids.
• The activity of these solids must be controlled in order to allow the
mud to function properly.
• The solids which do not react within the mud are called inactive or
inert solids.
• The other inactive solids are generated by the drilling process (drilled
cuttings).
• Fresh water or salt water is used as the base for most of these muds.
Water Based Mud (WBM)
Disadvantages
• These muds causes instability in shales (hydration of the
clays).
• The inferior wellbore quality often encountered in shales
may make logging and completion operations difficult or
impossible.
Water Based Mud (WBM)
Composition of typical WBM
 Oil-Based Muds
• In the 1970s, the industry turned increasingly towards oil-based mud,
as a means of controlling reactive shales
Advantages:
excellent wellbore stability;
good lubrication;
temperature stability;
a reduced risk of differential sticking;
low formation damage potential.
Disadvantages:
Expensive;
require more careful handling (pollution control).
Classification of oil-based muds
- Full oil system (water content less than 5%)
- Invert oil emulsions (water content from 5
to 50%)
- Synthetic oil based mud
Field Tests on Drilling Fluids
• The properties of drilling mud are regularly measured by the mud engineer.
• These measurements will be used to determine if the quality of the mud has
deteriorated and requires treatment.
• A summary of the tests common to both water based and oil-based muds is given
below:
Mud Density
• The density of the drilling mud can be determined with the mud balance.
• The cup of the balance is completely filled with a sample of the mud and the lid
placed firmly on top.
• The balance arm is placed on the base and the rider adjusted until the arm is
level.
• The density can be read directly off the graduated scale at the left-hand side of
the rider.
Mud Density cont’d
•
 Mud Viscosity
• In general terms, viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow.
• Two common methods are used on the rig to measure viscosity:
Marsh Funnel
• The Marsh is used to make a very quick test of the viscosity of the
drilling mud.
Procedure
• A mud sample is poured into the funnel with the lower point closed.
• The lower end is opened and the timer or stop clock started
immediately.
• Time taken for one quart (946 ml) to flow out into a measuring cup is
recorded. And this a measure of the mud viscosity.
Mud Viscosity
Marsh Funnel
Multi-rate rotational viscometer
Procedure
• Lower the instrument head into the mud sample until
the sleeve is immersed up to a scribe line.
• The rotor speed is set at different rpms and after
waiting for a steady dial reading this value is recorded.
• This is repeated until all of the required dial readings
have been recorded. (e.g. 600 rpm; 300 rpm; 200 rpm;
100 rpm; 6 rpm and 3 rpm.)
Multi-rate rotational viscometer
 Gel Strength
• The gel strength will provide an indication of the pressure required to
initiate flow after the mud has been static for some time.
• It also provides an indication of the suspension properties of the mud
and hence its ability to suspend cuttings when the mud is stationary.
• The gel strength can be measured using the multi-rate viscometer.
• After the mud has remained static for some time (10 seconds), the
rotor is set at a low speed (3 rpm) and the deflection noted. This is
reported as the initial or 10 second gel.
• The same procedure is repeated after the mud remains static for 10
minutes, to determine the 10 minute gel.
• Both gels are measured in the same units as Yield Point (𝑙𝑏𝑓 100𝑓𝑡2 ).
• Gel strength usually appears on the mud report as two figures (e.g.,
17/25). The first being the initial gel and the second the 10 minute gel.
 Filtration
• The filter cake building properties of mud can be measured by means of a filter press.
• The following are measured during this test:
1. the rate at which fluid from a mud sample is forced through a filter under specified
temperature and pressure.
2. the thickness of the solid residue deposited on the filter paper caused by the loss of
fluids.
The first of the above reflects the efficiency with which the solids in the mud are
creating an impermeable filter cake.
The second reflects the thickness of the filter cake that will be created in the wellbore.
Note
• Notice that this type of test does not accurately simulate downhole conditions in that
only static filtration is being measured.
• In the wellbore, filtration is occurring under dynamic conditions with the mud flowing
past the wall of the hole.
Standard API filter press
Filtration
Description of standard API filter press
• The instrument consists of a mud cell, pressure assembly and filtering device.
• The API standard test is at room temperature and 100 psi pressure.
• A special cell must be used to conduct the test at high pressure and temperature (500
psi, 300℉).
• The cell is closed at the bottom by a lid which is fitted with a screen.
• On top of the screen is placed a filter paper which is pressed up against an O ring seal.
• A graduated cylinder is placed under the screen to collect the filtrate.
• The pressure of 100 psi is applied for a period of 30 minutes and the volume of filtrate
can then be measured (in cm3 ).
• When the pressure is bled off the cell can be opened and the filter paper examined.
• The thickness of the filter cake is measured in 1/32’’s of an inch.
Filtration
Typical laboratory filter press
 Sand Content
• A high proportion of sand in the mud can damage the mud pumps and is
undesirable.
• The percentage of sand in the mud is measured regularly using a 200
mesh sieve and a graduated tube.
• The glass measuring tube is filled with mud up to the scribe line. Water is
then added up to the next scribe line.
• The fluids are mixed by shaking and then poured through the sieve.
• The sand retained on the sieve should be washed thoroughly to remove
any remaining mud.
• A funnel is fitted to the top of the sieve and the sand is washed into the
glass tube by a fine spray of water.
• After allowing the sand to settle the sand content can be read off directly
as a percentage.
Sand Content
sand content apparatus Typical laboratory sand content
apparatus
 Liquid and solid content
• To avoid pipe sticking, the proportion of solids in the mud
should not exceed 10% by volume.
• A carefully measured sample of mud is heated until the liquid
components are vaporized.
• The vapors are then condensed, and collected in the
measuring glass.
• The volume of liquids is read off directly and expressed as a
percentage.
• Rest of volume represents the solids volume
 Hydrogen ion determination (PH)
• The pH of the mud will influence the reaction of various chemicals and
must be closely controlled.
• The pH test is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in an
aqueous solution.
• This can be done either by pHydrion paper or by a special pH meter.
• The pH paper will turn different colors depending on the concentration
of hydrogen ions.
Note
• The PH can be also measured by the PH meter.
• Here the probe of this instrument is placed in sample of mud and the
reading is taken after the stabilization of the needle.
 Chloride Content
• The amount of chloride content is an indication about salt contamination which
comes from formation. The test is based on measuring the salt quantity in
sample of mud.
Procedure
• Take a small sample of filtrate of the mud
• Add phenolphthalein
• Titrate with acid until the color changes
• Add distilled water and potassium chromate solution.
• Add silver nitrate drop by drop.
• The end point is reached when the color changes.
• The chloride content is calculated from:
𝑪𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒑𝒑𝒎) = 𝒎𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝒎𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆