THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

GROUP MEMBERS:
SYEDA ASNA RASHDI, FIZA SARDAR,
MAHNOOR NAREJO, AYESHA SHAMIM,
MALEEHA SALEEM, RABAIL MARI ,ANSA
SHERZAMAN
The Concept of Immunity
• Immunity or resistance is the ability to ward off damage
or disease through our defenses. Vulnerability or lack of
resistance is termed susceptibility.
• The two general types of immunity are
• (1) innate and (2) adaptive.
• Innate immunity is the body's first line of defence
against pathogens. It is general and non-specific, which
means it does not differentiate between types of
pathogens.
• Adaptive immunity is a type of immunity that is built
up as we are exposed to diseases or get vaccinated.
INNATE IMMUNITY:
• Innate immunity is also known as non specific
immune system comprises the cells and the
mechanisms that defend hosts from pathogen in
a non specific manner. It consists physical
barrier (skin, mucous membrane) and chemical
barrier (gastric juice, lysozymes). It provides
immunity by first and second line of defense.
First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous
Membranes:
• The skin and mucous membranes of the body
are the first line of defense against pathogens.
These structures provide both physical and
chemical barriers that discourage pathogens and
foreign substances from penetrating the body
and causing disease.
• With its many layers of closely packed,
keratinized cells, the outer epithelial layer of the
skin—the epidermis—provides a formidable
physical barrier to the entrance of microbes
• The epithelial layer of mucous membranes, which
line body cavities, secretes a fluid called mucus that
lubricates and moistens the cavity surface.

• Vaginal secretions likewise move microbes out

of the body in females. Defecation and vomiting
also expel microbes. For example, in response to
some microbial toxins, the smooth muscle of the
lower gastrointestinal tract contracts vigorously;
the resulting diarrhea rapidly expels many of the
microbes.
• The cleansing of the urethra by the flow of urine
retards microbial colonization of the urinary
system.
• Gastric juice, produced by the glands of the
stomach, is a mixture of hydrochloric acid, enzymes,
and mucus. The strong acidity of gastric juice (pH
1.2–3.0) destroys many bacteria and most bacterial
toxins
Second Line of Defense: Internal Defenses
• When pathogens penetrate the physical and
chemical barriers of the skin and mucous
membranes, they encounter a second line of
defense: internal antimicrobial substances,
phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation,
and fever.
Antimicrobial Substances:
• There are four main types of antimicrobial substances that discourage microbial growth:
interferons, complement, iron-binding proteins, and antimicrobial protein.

INTERFERONS:
Lymphocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts infected with viruses produce proteins called interferons.
Interferons (IFNs) are among the first vertebrate immune pathways activated upon viral infection and
are crucial for control of viral replication and dissemination, especially at mucosal surfaces as key
locations for host exposure to pathogens.

COMPLEMENT SYSTEM:
A group of normally inactive proteins in blood plasma and on plasma membranes makes up the
complement system. When activated, these proteins “complement” or enhance certain immune
reactions.The complement system causes cytolysis (bursting) of microbes, promotes phagocytosis, and
contributes to inflammation.

IRON-BINDING PROTEINS:
Iron-binding proteins inhibit the growth of certain bacteria by reducing the amount of available iron.
Examples include transferrin (found in blood and tissue fluids), lactoferrin (found in milk, saliva, and
mucus), ferritin (found in the liver, spleen, and red bone marrow), and hemoglobin (found in red blood
cells).
Antimicrobial proteins (AMPs):

They are short peptides that have a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity. Examples of AMPs are dermicidin
(der-ma-SĪ-din) (produced by sweat glands), defensins and cathelicidins (produced by neutrophils,
macrophages, and epithelia), and thrombocidin (produced by platelets). In addition to killing a wide range of
microbes, AMPs can attract dendritic cells and mast cells, which participate in immune responses. Interestingly
enough, microbes exposed to AMPs do not appear to develop resistance, as often happen wih antibiotics .
Adaptive Immunity
• The ability of the body to defend itself against specific
invading agents such as bacteria, toxins, viruses, and
foreign tissues is called adaptive (specific) immunity.
• Two properties distinguish adaptive immunity from
innate immunity:
• (1) spec(antigens), which also involves distinguishing
self from nonself molecules,
• (2) memory for most previously encountered antigens
so that second encounter prompts an even more rapid
and vigorous response.
Maturation of T Cells and B Cells
• Adaptive immunity involves lymphocytes called B
cells and T cells.
• Both develop in primary lymphatic organs (red bone
marrow and the thymus) from pluripotent stem cells
that originate in red bone marrow.
• B cells complete their development in red bone
marrow, a process that continues throughout life. T
cells develop from pre-T cells that migrate from red
bone marrow into the thymus, where they mature.
• Most T cells arise before puberty, but they continue
to mature and leave the thymus throughout life.
B cells and pre-T cells arise from
pluripotent stem cells in red bone marrow.

B cells and T cells develop in primary lymphatic tissues

(red bone marrow and the thymus) and are activated in
secondary lymphatic organs and tissues (lymph nodes,
spleen, and lymphatic nodules). Once activated, each type
of lymphocyte forms a clone of cells that can recognize a
specific antigen. For simplicity, antigen receptors, CD4
proteins, and CD8 proteins are not shown in the plasma
membranes of the cells of the lymphocyte clone
TYPES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY:
• The two types of adaptive immunity.
• CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY.
In cell-mediated immunity, cytotoxic T cells
directly attack invading antigens.
• ANTIBODY MEDIATED IMMUNITY.
In antibody-mediated immunity, B cells
transform into plasma cells, which synthesize and
secrete specific proteins called antibodies or
immunoglobulins.
CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY:
• A cell mediated immunity
responses begins with
activation of a small number of T
cells by a specific antigen.
• During the activation process,
T-cell receptors (TCRs)
recognize antigen fragments
associated with MHC molecules
on the surface of a body cell.
• Activation of T-cell also
requires co-stimulation either
by cytokines such as
interleukins or by pairs of
plasma membrane molecules.
ANTIBODY MEDIATED IMMUNITY
• Antibody mediated immunity .
involves the activation of B
cells and secretion of
antibodies when in contact
with a pathogen. When
exposed to the chemicals
released by activated helper T
cells a sentized B cells divides
producing daughter cells that
differentiate into memory B
cells and plasma cells.
Immunological Memory
• A hallmark of immune responses is memory for specific antigens that
have triggered immune responses in the past. Immunological
memory is due to the presence of long-lasting antibodies and very
long-lived lymphocytes that arise during clonal selection of antigen-
stimulated B cells and T cells.
• One measure of immunological memory is antibody titer, the amount
of antibody in serum. Aft er an initial contact with an antigen, no
antibodies are present for a period of several days. Then, a slow rise
in the antibody titer occurs, first IgM and then IgG, followed by a
gradual decline in antibody titer. This is the primary response.
• Memory cells may remain for decades. Every new encounter with the
same antigen results in a rapid proliferation of memory cells. Aft er
subsequent encounters, the antibody titer is far greater than during a
primary response and consists mainly of IgG antibodies. This
accelerated, more intense response is called the secondary response.
Aging and the Immune System
• With advancing age, most people become more susceptible to all
types of infections and malignancies. Their response to vaccines is
decreased, and they tend to produce more autoantibodies
(antibodies against their body’s own molecules). In addition, the
immune system exhibits lowered levels of function. For example, T
cells become less responsive to antigens, and fewer T cells respond
to infections. This may result from age-related atrophy of the
thymus or decreased production of thymic hormones. Because the
T cell population decreases with age, B cells are also less
responsive. Consequently, antibody levels do not increase as
rapidly in response to a challenge by an antigen, resulting in
increased susceptibility to various infections. It is for this key
reason that elderly individuals are encouraged to get influenza
(flu) vaccinations each year.
Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalance
• AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome:
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a condition in
which a person experiences a telltale assortment of infections
due to the progressive destruction of immune system cells by the
human immunodefeciency virus. (HIV).
• HIV: Structure and Infection:
HIV consists of an inner core of ribonucleic acid (RNA) covered
by a protein coat (capsid). HIV is classified as a retrovirus (RET-
rō-vī-rus) since its genetic information is carried in RNA instead
of DNA. Surrounding the HIV capsid is an envelope composed
of a lipid bilayer that is penetrated by glycoproteins (
• Allergic Reactions :
• A person who is overly reactive to a substance that is tolerated by most other people is said
to be allergic or hypersensitive. Whenever an allergic reaction takes place, some tissue
injury occurs. The antigens that induce an allergic reaction are called allergen.
• Autoimmune Diseases:
• In an autoimmune disease or autoimmunity, the immune system fails to display self-
tolerance and attacks the person’s own tissues. Autoimmune diseases usually arise in early
adulthood and are common.
• Infectious Mononucleosis:
• Infectious mononucleosis is characterized by swollen lymph glands, fever, sore throat, and
extreme fatigue. It's often spread through contact with infected saliva from the mouth.
Symptoms can take between 4 to 6 weeks to appear and usually do not last beyond 4 months.
• Lymphomas:
• Lymphomas are cancers of the lymphatic organs, especially the lymph nodes. Most
haveno known cause. The two main types of lymphomas are Hodgkin disease and non-
Hodgkin lymphoma.
• Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease :
• Severe combined immunodeficiency disease is a rare inherited disorder in which
both B cells and T cells are missing or inactive .