Chapter 1

OBJECT-ORIENTED ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

“Time is a great teacher, but unfortunately it kills all its

pupils.”
- Hector Berlioz

Objectives
•Describe the book goals and scope
•Define OOA/D (Object-Oriented Analysis and Design)
•Illustrate a brief OOA/D example
•Overview UML and visual agile modeling
 Applying UML and Patterns

Larman’s book is a tool to help developers/students

learn core skills in OOA/D.
• These skills are essential for the creation of well-
designed, robust, and maintainable software using
OO technologies and languages such as Java or C#.

• Knowing an object oriented language is necessary

but insufficient first step to create object
systems. Knowing how to “think in objects” is
critical !

Owning a hammer doesn’t make one an architect”

(Proverb)

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 Fig. 1.1 Topics and skills covered in the book.

OOA/D

Patterns UML notation

Topics and Skills

Principles and Requirements

guidelines analysis

Iterative
development with
an agile Unified
Process

The book illustrates this in the context of long-running case studies that evolve over
several iterations.
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 Analysis

• Analysis emphasizes an investigation of the

problem and requirements, rather than a solution.

• In software development, we are primarily

concerned with two forms of analysis.
– Requirements Analysis is discovering the requirements
that a system must meet in order to be successful.

– Object-Oriented Analysis is investigating the objects in

a domain to discover information important to meet the
requirements.

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 Use Cases

• Writing Use Cases is not a specifically OO

artifact – they are simply written stories.

• However, they are a best practice for elaborating

and understanding requirements.

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 Design

• Design emphasizes a conceptual solution that

fulfills the requirements, rather than its
implementation.
– Design ideas often exclude low-level or obvious details –
obvious to the intended consumers.

– There are subsets of design, including

• architectural design,
• object design,
• database design.
• Do the right thing (analysis), and do the thing
right (design).

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 Object-Oriented Analysis and Design
(OOA/D)
• During OOA, the emphasis is on finding and
describing the objects (or concepts) in the
problem domain, i.e., domain objects.

• During OOD (or simply object design), the

emphasis is on defining software objects and how
they collaborate to fulfill the requirements.

• During OOP (OO Programming) or Implementation,

design objects are implemented in a programming
language.
– Implementation is also known as Coding or Construction.

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 Fig. 1.2 Object-orientation emphasizes representation of objects

Plane
visualization of
domain concept tailNumber domain concept

public class Plane

{
representation in an private String tailNumber;
object-oriented
programming language public List getFlightHistory() {...}
}

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 Responsibility-Driven Design

• It is the classical OO design metaphor(symbol)

• The most important skill in OOA/D is assigning

responsibilities to objects.
– That determines how objects interact and what classes
should perform what operations.

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 Design Patterns

• Certain tried-and-true solutions to design

problems have been expressed as principles of
best practice, often in the form of Design
Patterns.

• A Design Pattern is a named problem solution

formula that apply excellent design principles.

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 The Unified Process (UP)

• A standardized approach to analysis and design

helps to ensure that all necessary tasks are
understood and completed in software
development.

– Requirements analysis and OOA/D needs to be presented

and practiced in the context of some development
process.
– Here, an agile (light, flexible) approach to well-known
Unified Process (UP) is used as a sample iterative
development process.

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 Unified Modeling Language (UML)

• UML is the de facto standard diagramming

notation for drawing or presenting pictures
related to OO software.

• UML is a visual language for specifying,

constructing and documenting the artifacts of OO
systems.
– Knowing UML helps you communicate with others in
creating software.

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 Three ways people apply UML are ...

• UML as sketch
– Informal and incomplete diagrams (often hand sketched on
whiteboards) created to explore difficult parts of the problem
or solution space
– Agile modeling emphasizes UML as sketch.

• UML as blueprint
– relatively detailed design diagrams used either for reverse
engineering to visualize and better understand existing code,
– or for forward engineering to guide for code generation, either
manually or automatically with a tool.

• UML as a programming language

– Complete executable specification of a sw system in UML.

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 Three perspectives to apply UML are ...
• Conceptual perspective – the diagrams are
interpreted as describing things in a situation of
the real world or domain of interest.

• Specification (software) perspective – the

diagrams describe sw abstractions or components
with specifications and interfaces, but no
commitment to a particular language
implementation.

• Implementation perspective – the diagrams

describe sw implementations in a particular
technology.

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 Fig. 1.6 Different perspectives with UML

Conceptual Perspective
DiceGame Die (domain model)
1 Includes 2
faceValue Raw UML class diagram
notation used to visualize
real-world concepts.

Specification or
DiceGame Die Implementation
Perspective
die1 : Die 2 faceValue : int (design class diagram)
die2 : Die
getFaceValue() : int Raw UML class diagram
play() roll() notation used to visualize
software elements.

In practice, most software-oriented UML diagramming assumes an implementation

perspective and the specification perspective is often used for design.
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 The meaning of “class” in different
perspectives
• Conceptual class – real-world concept or thing. A
conceptual or essential perspective.
– The UP Domain Model contains conceptual classes.

• Software class – a class representing a

specification or implementation perspective of a
sw development, regardless of the process or
method.

• Implementation class – a class implemented in a

specific OO language such as Java.

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 A Short Example

OOA/D steps of a small “Dice Game”:

– Define Use Cases
– Define a Domain Model
– Define Interaction Diagrams
– Define Design Class Diagrams

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Define Use Cases
Use Case: Play a Dice Game

• Player requests to roll the dice. System presents

results. If the dice face value totals seven, player
wins; otherwise, player loses.

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Define a Domain Model
Fig. 1.3 Partial domain model (conceptual object model) of the dice game

Player Die
1 Rolls 2
name faceValue
1 2
Plays
1

DiceGame
1 Includes

Domain model shows the noteworthy domain concepts as objects, their attributes, and
associations.
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Define Object Responsibilities and Draw Interaction Diagrams
Fig. 1.4 Sequence diagram illustrating messages between software objects

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 Fig. 1.4 Sequence diagram illustrating messages between software objects

:DiceGame die1 : Die die2 : Die

play()
roll()

fv1 := getFaceValue()

roll()

fv2 := getFaceValue()

A sequence diagram (a kind of UML interaction diagram) shows the flow of messages
between software objects and thus the invocation of objects.
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Define Design Class Diagrams
Fig. 1.5 Partial design class diagram (software classes)

DiceGame Die

die1 : Die 1 2 faceValue : int

die2 : Die
getFaceValue() : int
play() roll()

A static view of the class (including its attributes and methods) definitions is usefully
shown with a UML class diagram.
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Chapter 2
ITERATIVE, EVOLUTIONARY, AND AGILE

“You should use iterative development only on projects that

you want to succeed.”
- Martin Fowler

Objectives
• Provide motivation for the content and order of the
book
• Define an iterative and agile process
• Define fundamental concepts in the Unified Process.

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 Waterfall (Sequential) Lifecycle

• promotes big up-front “speculative” requirements

and design steps before programming.

• was historically promoted due to belief or hearsay

rather than statistically significant evidence.*
– Success/failure studies show that the waterfall is
strongly associated with the highest failure rates for
software projects.
– On average, 45% of the features are never used, and
early schedules and estimates vary up to 400% from the
actuals.

* We should approach to the author’s such claims very carefully! [KD]

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 Why the waterfall lifecycle fails?

• The key false assumption:

– The specifications are predictable and stable and can be
correctly defined at the start, with low change rates.

– But change is a constant on software projects.

• A typical software project experienced a 25% change in
requirements (Boehm and Papaccio 1988)

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 Fig. 2.3 Percentage of change on software projects of varying sizes. (Jones 1997)

40

35

30
Requirements change

25

20

15

10

0
10 100 1000 10000
Project Size in Function Points

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 Iterative and Evolutionary Development
• involves early programming and testing of a partial system,
in repeating cycles.

• relies on short quick development steps (or iterations),

feedback and adaptation to clarify the requirements and
design so successively enlarging and refining a system.
– normally assumes that the development starts before all
requirements are defined in detail, feedback is used to clarify
and improve the evolving specifications.

• Each iteration will include requirements, analysis, design,

implementation, and test.

Current research demonstrates that iterative methods

are associated with higher success and productivity
rates, and lower defect levels.*

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 Fig. 2.2 Iterative feedback and evolution leads towards the desired system. The
requirements and design instability lowers over time.

Early iterations are farther from the "true

path" of the system. Via feedback and In late iterations, a significant change in
adaptation, the system converges towards requirements is rare, but can occur. Such
the most appropriate requirements and late changes may give an organization a
design. competitive business advantage.

one iteration of design,

implement, integrate, and test

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 Timeboxing

• A key idea is that iterations are timeboxed, or

fixed in length.
– Most iterative methods recommend in iteration length bw
2 – 6 weeks.

– If it seems that it will be difficult to meet the deadline,

the recommended response is to de-scope
• De-scoping: removing tasks or requirements from the
iteration, and including them in a future iteration, rather
than slipping the completion date.

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 Fig. 2.1 Iterative and Evolutionary Development (also known as iterative and
inceremental development; spiral development and evolutionary development)

Requirements Requirements Feedback from iteration N

Leads to refinement and
Design Design adaptation of
Time
The requirements and
Implementation& Implementation& design in
Test&Integration Test&Integration İteration N+1
&More Design &More Design
Final Integration Final Integration
& System Test & System Test

Each iteration is an executable

but incomplete system;
A subset of the final system
(but not a throw-away prototype!)

3 weeks(for example)
The system
Iterations are fixed in grows
.
incrementally
length or timeboxed.

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 Fig. 2.4 Evolutionary analysis and design – the majority in early iterations.
1 2 3 4 5 ... 20

requirements workshops

Imagine this will

ultimately be a 20 -
iteration project .

requirements

requirements
software

software
In evolutionary iterative
development , the
requirements evolve
over a set of the early
iterations , through a
series of requirements
90 % 90 %
workshops (for
example ). Perhaps
after four iterations and
50 %
workshops , 90 % of the
requirements are 30 %
defined and refined . 20 % 20 %
5% 8% 10 %
Nevertheless , only 2%
10 % of the software is
Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3 Iteration 4 Iteration 5
built .

week 2 week 3
week 1T W Th F M T W Th F M T W Th F
M

kickoff meeting team agile start de-scope final check-in demo and next
clarifying iteration modeling& coding& iteration and code- 2-day iteration
goals with the team . design, testing goals if freeze for the requirements planning
1 hour UML too much iteration workshop meeting;
whiteboard work baseline 2 hours
sketching.
5 hours Most OOA/D and
Use-case modeling
applying UML during
during the workshop
this period
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 Build-Feedback-Adapt Cycles

In complex changing systems, feedback and adaptation

are key ingredients for success:
– Feedback from early development, programmers trying to read
specifications, and client demos
• to refine the requirements.

– Feedback from tests and developers

• to refine the design and models.

– Feedback from the progress of the team tackling early

features
• to refine the schedule and estimates.

– Feedback from the client and marketplace to re-prioritize the

features
• to tackle in the next iteration.

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 Benefits to Iterative Development
• Less project failure, better productivity, and lower defect
rates
• Early rather than late mitigation of high risks

• Early visible progress

• Early feedback, user engagement, and adaptation

• Managed complexity;
– the team is not overwhelmed by “analysis paralysis” or very long
and complex steps
• The learning within an iteration can be methodically used to
improve the development process itself, iteration by
iteration.

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 The Unified Process (UP)

• A software development process describes an

approach to building, deploying, and possibly
maintaining software.

• UP has emerged as a popular and effective

iterative software development process for
building OO systems.
– In particular, the Rational Unified Process, as modified
at Rational Software, is widely practiced and adopted by
industry.

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 Unified Process (UP)

• encourages a combination of risk-driven and

client-driven iterative planning.

• The goals of the early iterations are chosen to

– Identify and drive down the highest risks.
• Includes the practice of architecture-centric iterative
development - Early iterations focus on building, testing,
and stabilizing the core architecture.
• Tackles the difficult things first.

– Build visible features that the client cares most about.

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 Advantages of UP

 The UP puts an emphasis on addressing very early high risks

areas.

 It does not assume a fixed set of firm requirements at the

inception of the project, but allows to refine the
requirements as the project evolves.

 It does not put either a strong focus on documents or

‘ceremonies’

 The main focus remains the software product itself, and its
quality.

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 Fig. 2.6 Schedule-oriented terms in the UP

development cycle

iteration phase

inc. elaboration construction transition

milestone release increment final production

release
An iteration end- A stable executable The difference
point when some subset of the final (delta) between the At this point, the
significant decision product. The end of releases of 2 system is released
or evaluation each iteration is a subsequent for production use.
occurs. minor release. iterations.

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 UP Best Practices
• Get high risk and high value first
• Constant user feedback and engagement

• Early cohesive core architecture

• Test early, often, and realistically

• Apply use cases where needed

• Do some visual modeling with UML

• Manage requirements and scope creep

• Manage change requests and configuration

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 UP Phases
1 Inception
 Inception is not a requirements phase; rather a feasibility
phase, where just enough investigation is done to support a
decision to continue or stop.
 The life-cycle objectives of the project are stated, so that the
needs of every stakeholder are considered. Scope and
boundary conditions, acceptance criteria and some
requirements are established.
 Approximate vision, business case, scope, vague estimates.

2 Elaboration
 An analysis is done to determine the risks, stability of vision of
what the product is to become, stability of architecture and
expenditure of resources.
 Refined vision, iterative implementation of core architecture,
resolution of high risks, identification of most requirements
and scope, more realistic estimates.

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 UP Phases (2)

3 Construction
– The Construction phase is a manufacturing process. It
emphasizes managing resources and controlling operations to
optimize costs, schedules and quality. This phase is broken into
several iterations.
– Iterative implementation of the remaining lower risk and easier
elements, and preparation for deployment.

4 Transition
– The transition phase is the phase where the product is put in
the hands of its end users. It involves issues of marketing,
packaging, installing, configuring, supporting the user-
community, making corrections, etc.
– Beta tests, deployment.

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 Fig. 2.7 UP disciplines

A four-week iteration (for example).

A mini-project that includes work in most Note that
disciplines, ending in a stable executable. although an
iteration includes
work in most
Sample disciplines, the
UP Disciplines relative effort and
emphasis change
Business Modeling over time.
Focus
of this Requirements This example is
book suggestive, not
Design literal.
Implementation

Test

Deployment

Configuration & Change

Management

Project Management

Environment

r Iterations 42
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 Business Modeling Discipline

• The purpose of this discipline is to model the

business context and the scope of your system.
• This is done usually in Inception and Elaboration
phase.

• Activities include the development of:

– A context model showing how the system fits into its overall
environment
– A high-level business requirements model eg. use case model
– A domain model e.g. class diagram or data diagram depicting
major business classes or entities
– A business process model

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 Requirements Discipline

• The purpose of this discipline is to engineer the

requirements for the project, including their
identification, modeling, and documentation.

• The main deliverable of this discipline is the

Software Requirements Specification (SRS), also
referred to as the Requirements Model, which
encompasses the captured requirements.

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 Analysis & Design Discipline

• The purpose of this discipline is to evolve a

robust architecture for the system based on the
requirements, to transform the requirements into
a design, and to ensure that implementation
environment issues are reflected in the design.

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 Environment Discipline
• The purpose of this discipline is to support
development work. Practically all the work in this
workflow are done in Inception phase.

• The activities include

- implementing and configuring UP , selecting and acquiring
required tools, developing in-house tools
- providing software and hardware maintenance and
training.

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 Agile Methods and Attitudes

• Agile development methods usually

– apply timeboxed iterative and evolutionary development,
– employ adaptive planning,
– promote incremental delivery,
– and include other values and practices that encourage
agility – rapid and flexible response to change.

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 Existing Agile Methods
 Rational Unified Process (RUP)
 Extreme Programming (XP)

 Feature Driven Development (FDD)

 Scrum

 Open source software development

 Crystal Family of Methodologies

 Dynamic Systems Development Methods

 Adaptive software development

 Agile Modeling
 Pragmatic Programming

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 The Agile Manifesto
• In 2001 a group interested in iterative and agile methods
met to find common ground. Out of this came the Agile
Alliance with a manifesto and statement of principles to
capture the spirit of agile methods:

– Individuals and interactions over processes and tools

– Working software over comprehensive documentation

– Customer collaboration over contract negotiation

– Responding to change over following a plan

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 The Agile Principles
1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through
early and continuous delivery of valuable software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development.
Agile processes harness change for the customer’s
competitive advantage.
3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of
weeks to a couple of months, with a preference to the
shorter time scale.
4. Business people and developers must work together daily
throughout the project.
5. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the
environment and support they need, and trust them to get
the job done.
6. The most efficient and effective method of conveying info
to and within a development team is face-to-face
conversation.

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 The Agile Principles

7. Working software is the primary measure of progress.

8. Agile processes promote sustainable development.
9. The sponsors, developers, and users should be able to
maintain a constant pace indefinitely.
10. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good
design enhances agility.
11. Simplicity – the art of maximizing the amount of work NOT
done – is essential.
12. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge
from self-organizing teams.
13. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become
more effective, then tunes and adjusts its behavior
accordingly.

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 Agile Modeling

• The purpose of modeling (sketching UML, …) is

primarily to understand, not to document.
– The very act of modeling can and should provide a way to
better understand the problem or solution space.

• From this viewpoint, the purpose of “doing UML or

OOA/D” is not for a designer to create many
detailed UML diagrams that are handed off to a
programmer,
– but rather to quickly explore alternatives (more quickly
than with code) and the path to a good OO design.

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 Agile Modeling Principles and Values
(Ambler, 2002)
• Adopting an agile method does not mean avoiding any
modeling.

• The purpose of modeling and models is primarily to support

understanding and communication, not documentation.

• Don’t model or apply the UML to all or most of the software

design. Apply UML for the smaller percentage of unusual,
difficult, tricky parts of design space.

• Use the simplest tool possible. “Prefer” sketching UML on

whiteboards, and capturing the diagrams with a digital
camera.

• Don’t model alone, model in pairs (or triads) at the

whiteboard, in the awareness that the purpose is to
discover, understand, and share that understanding.
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 Agile Modeling Principles and Values (2)
• Create models in parallel: Dynamic-view vs. static view.

• Use “good enough” simple notation while sketching with a pen

on whiteboards. Exact UML details aren’t important.

• Know that all models will be inaccurate, and the final code or
design different – than the model. Only tested code
demonstrates the true design.

• Developers themselves should do the OO design modeling,

for themselves.

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 Agile UP
• Prefer a small set of UP activities and artifacts.

• Requirements and designs are not completed before

implementation. They adaptively emerge through a series of
iterations, based on feedback.

• Apply the UML with agile modeling principles.

• There isn’t a detailed plan for the entire project.

– There is a high-level plan (called the Phase Plan) that estimates
the project end date and other major milestones, but it does
not detail the fine-grained steps to those milestones.
– A detailed plan (called the Iteration Plan) only plans with
greater detail one iteration in advance. Detailed planning is
done adaptively from iteration to iteration.

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