Ethics and

Archaeology
EXPLAIN THE ETHICAL ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH ARCHAEOLOGY.
Ethics

Our consideration of the ethical issues related to the ownership, scientific analysis and display
of human remains has been relatively recent.
Scientific analysis and display of ancient
human
remains
 While ownership issues can often be solved amicably in the short term, issues relating to
scientific analysis and display of ancient human remains have become more contentious.
They can often continue for some time and ultimately remain unresolved.
 preservation and display – what sort of display?
 reburial – reburied where? With or without rites? If with rites, what sort?
 research – does the knowledge gained from human remains outweigh the value of
preserving them undisturbed?
 religion – what are the views of Christians, Druids and other religious groups?
 education – how important is it to educate the public, particularly children, about the past?
 tourism – what are the benefits for tourism in the display of ancient human remains in
regional and national museums?
Melanie Giles, ‘Bog bodies: representing the dead’, paper delivered at the conference ‘Respect for
Ancient British Human Remains: Philosophy and Practice’, Manchester Museum, 17 November
2006
 I believe it is important to study ancient human remains because this analysis
and interpretation is transformative: it not only has the potential to challenge
modern preconceptions but reveal very different understandings of what it
meant to be human in the past.… Ultimately, our goal is a greater
understanding of the past or rather, human history, which we need to share
and disseminate. What then, are our options? First, as I have argued, these
remains cannot be easily re-interred, since the original context of their burial
has usually been destroyed. I would be cautious about selecting an alternative
place of burial and of imposing a rite or ritual upon them, which was not of
their own choosing. But should they be displayed in a museum case? I believe
this can be achieved with sufficient respect, perhaps by screening the body
from any immediate visual access, and offering visitors a choice as to whether
they actually view the remains. This is a deliberate policy adopted in the
Archaeological Museum of the South Tyrol, with regard to the remains of the
Ice Man. At this stage, the debate over display and reburial issues could be
highlighted, through the views of different interest groups.
W hat does Melanie Giles think is the value of
studying ancient human remains?
2 From your study of this chapter, identify ways in
which the original contexts of bog body
burials have been destroyed.
3 Why would Giles be ‘cautious’ about reburying
ancient human remains? Do you think her
caution is justified?
4 How could a museum give visitors a sense of the
‘historical, social and landscape context’ of
any ancient human remains it had to display?
6 What is your opinion of Giles’ suggestion of how
ancient human remains could be displayed
in a museum?
Consideration Matters to consider in the study and
display of human remains:
• Age of the remains
• Direct or "cultural" descendants
• Treatment of human remains
• Storage of human remains
• Display of human remains (ethnic identification, religious sensitivities, interests of children,
warning notices, skeletal remains/plaster casts)
Contested space

 The display of human remains has become a contentious

issue in recent years largely due to the demands of cultural
groups who see the study and display of human remains as
unethical practice and offensive to religious faiths such as
Judaism and Islam. International visitors have expressed
concerns that the display of human remains is insensitive to
the deceased, their relatives and cultural groups with strong
religious beliefs.
 Italy, a Catholic country has a long and unobtrusive history of
displaying human remains from the ancient world. This
practice is supported by museums around the world, which
have long displayed human remains such as mummies.
Replicas and reproductions

One way of getting around the problem of displaying actual human remains is the use
of replicas and reproductions. For example, a company in the UK prepares replicas of
the royal Egyptian mummies for display. These are constructed by a special process
using real bones and artificial organic flesh to produce perfect facsimiles. The
manufacturers claim that exhibiting these replicas enables the public to view the
mummies while preserving the originals. It also enables the display of human
remains in cultures that do not choose to display real bodies.
Plaster
casts:
Indigenous people

 In post-colonial times, largely since World War II, many new nations that were
formerly colonies have been demanding the return of their cultural property,
including the remains of their ancestors. Such demands have met with mixed
success. An Australian example concerns the treatment of Australian Aboriginal
skeletal remains.

 During the 19th and most of the 20thcenturies, excavation of Aboriginal sites and
research into Aboriginal culture was conducted mostly by European Australians.
Little consideration was given to Aboriginal attitudes to such excavation, or to the
analysis and display of skeletal material in museums. Sacred sites were dug up,
burial sites looted and anything of interest was taken away to be examined
ordisplayed in museums.
Pemulwuy and Triganini

 The head of Pemulwuy, a warrior of the Sydney Eora tribe, was

cut off, pickled, bottled and sent to England for display.
 A great number of other Aboriginal remains suffered the same
fate.
 Truganini, a traditional Tasmanian Aboriginal, feared what
would happen to her remains, and her fears were realised. 2
years after her death the government approved the right to
exhume her bones on the condition that her remains be properly
stored and accessible for scientific purposes. However, her body
was later put on public display for almost 50 years before being
removed from display in 1951.
Timeline of repatriation
Ownership and custodianship

 Cultural heritage refers to all those things, both material and non-material, that are
valued and passed down through the generations by individuals and cultural groups.
These things are significant in providing a sense of identity and belonging. Material
culture includes tangible things such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books,
works of art and artefacts, while non-material culture includes things such as
traditions, language, music and knowledge.
 Cultural heritage includes:
 family heritage – stories, sayings, language, traditions, photographs, treasured
possessions
 community heritage – historic buildings, monuments, documents and artefacts
 national heritage – important historical and cultural figures, natural and cultural sites
 international heritage – monuments, natural and cultural sites, and cultural events.
Debate: World heritage (UNESCO)

 The international concern for protecting the world’s cultural heritage was reflected
in the1972 establishment of the UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection
of the World
 Cultural and Natural Heritage. A World Heritage List was created with a number
of criteria for justifying the inclusion of sites on the list. Nominated sites must be
of ‘outstanding universal value’ and meet at least one of the 10 cultural and/or
natural criteria. For example, the first
 selection criterion requires a nominated site to be an outstanding example of
human creativity.
Arguments for and against the
return of cultural property

 Cultural ownership remains a contentious subject. Some

countries that have lost valuable antiquities have made appeals
for their return.

 Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities has conducted a long

campaign for the return of more than 5000 artefacts taken in the
years before laws preventing their removal were introduced.

 Among these is the 3300-year-old bust of Nefertiti – arguably the

best known of all works of Egyptian art.
Parthenon Marbles: Cultural Heritage Debate
Read the arguments for
and against the return of
the marbles
CHAPTER 5, PAGE 89.
Response:

 Explain the ethical issues associated with modern archaeology and anthropology.