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05 - Macromolecules Use It
05 - Macromolecules Use It
The Structure
and Function of
Large Biological
Molecules
Lecture Presentations by
Nicole Tunbridge and
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
The Molecules of Life
The scientist in the foreground is using 3-D glasses to help her visualize the
structure of the protein displayed on her screen.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 5.1: Macromolecules are polymers, built
from monomers
▪ A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many
similar building blocks
▪ The repeating units that serve as building blocks are
called monomers
▪ Carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids are
polymers
1 2 3
Short polymer Unlinked
monomer
Dehydration removes a water
molecule, forming a new bond. H2O
1 2 3 4
Longer polymer
1 2 3 4
H2O
Hydrolysis adds a water
molecule, breaking a bond.
1 2 3 H
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Diversity of Polymers
Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Pentoses: five-carbon sugars (C5H10O5)
The structure and
classification of some
monosaccharides
Ribose Ribulose
Hexoses: six-carbon sugars (C6H12O6)
Aldose Ketose
(Aldehyde Sugar) (Ketone Sugar)
Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Aldose Ketose
(Aldehyde Sugar) (Ketone Sugar)
Ribose Ribulose
Aldose Ketose
(Aldehyde Sugar) (Ketone Sugar)
H2O
Glucose Glucose Maltose
H2O
Glucose Fructose Sucrose
Glucose
Amylopectin monomer
(somewhat branched)
50 µm
(a) Starch
Muscle
tissue
Glycogen granules Glycogen (extensively
stored in muscle branched)
tissue
Cell
wall 1 µm
(b) Glycogen
Plant cell,
surrounded Cellulose microfibrils Cellulose molecule
by cell wall in a plant cell wall (unbranched)
10 µm
Hydrogen bonds
Microfibril
0.5 µm
(c) Cellulose
10 mm
0.5 mm
Cellulose
molecules
b Glucose
monomer
2. Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals
▪ Glycogen is stored mainly in liver and muscle cells
▪ Hydrolysis of glycogen in these cells releases glucose
when the demand for sugar increases
Examples of Arthropods
Glycerol
(a) One of three dehydration reactions in the synthesis of a fat
Ester linkage
Fats
(a) Saturated fat (b) Unsaturated fat
Structural formula
of a saturated fat
molecule
Structural formula
of an unsaturated
Space-filling model fat molecule
of stearic acid, a
saturated fatty acid
Space-filling model
of oleic acid, an
unsaturated fatty
acid
Cis double bond
causes bending.
• Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats
and are solid at room temperature
Structural formula
of a saturated fat
molecule
Structural formula
of an unsaturated
fat molecule
adipose cells
Choline Hydrophilic
Hydrophilic head
head
Phosphate Hydrophobic
tails
Glycerol
(c) Phospholipid symbol
Fatty acids
Hydrophobic tails
water
Hydrophilic
head
Hydrophobic tail
Hydrophilic
head
water
Steroids
Cholesterol
Protein functions
Enzymatic proteins
Function: Selective acceleration of chemical reactions
Example: Digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis
of bonds in food molecules.
Enzyme
• Enzymes are a type of protein that acts as a
catalyst to speed up chemical reactions
• Enzymes can perform their functions
repeatedly, functioning as workhorses that carry
out the processes of life
Protein functions
Storage proteins
Function: Storage of amino acids
Examples:
• Casein, the protein of milk, is the major source of amino acids
for baby mammals.
• Plants have storage proteins in their seeds.
• Ovalbumin is the protein of egg white, used as an amino acid
source for the developing embryo.
Protein functions
Hormonal proteins
Function: Coordination of an organism’s activities
Example: Insulin, a hormone secreted by the
pancreas, causes other tissues to take up glucose,
thus regulating blood sugar concentration
Insulin
High secreted Normal
blood sugar blood sugar
Figure 5.15d
Protein functions
Contractile and motor proteins
Function: Movement
Examples:
• Motor proteins are responsible for the undulations of
cilia & flagella.
• Actin and myosin proteins are responsible for the
contraction of muscles.
Actin
Myosin
Muscle tissue
100 mm
Figure 5.15e
Protein functions
Defensive proteins
Function: Protection against disease
Example: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy
viruses and bacteria.
Antibodies
Virus Bacterium
Figure 5.15f
Protein functions
Transport proteins
Function: Transport of substances
Examples:
• Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood,
transports oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body.
Transport
protein
Cell membrane
Figure 5.15g
Protein functions
Receptor proteins
Function: Response of cell to chemical stimuli
Example: Receptors built into the membrane of a
nerve cell detect signaling molecules released by
other nerve cells.
Receptor
Signaling protein
molecules
Figure 5.15h
Protein functions
Structural proteins
Function: Support
• Keratin is the protein of hair, horns, feathers.
• Insects and spiders use silk fibers to make their
cocoons and webs,respectively.
• Collagen and elastin proteins provide a fibrous
framework in animal connective tissues.
Collagen
Connective
tissue 60 mm
Proteins
a carbon
Amino Carboxyl
group group
Peptide bond
New peptide
bond forming
Side
chains
Back-
bone
Enzyme Insulin
Amino
acids
Amino end
Carboxyl end
• Primary structure, the sequence of amino
acids in a protein, is like the order of letters
in a long word
• Primary structure is determined by inherited
genetic information
a helix
Hydrogen bond
b pleated sheet
b strand
Transthyretin
Hydrogen Transthyretin protein
bond polypeptide
Figure 5.20b
• The coils and folds of secondary structure
result from hydrogen bonds between repeating
constituents of the polypeptide backbone
• Typical secondary structures are a coil called
an a helix and a folded structure called a b
pleated sheet
Secondary structure
a helix
Hydrogen bond
b pleated sheet
Hydrogen bond
Figure 5.20c
• Tertiary structure is determined by interactions
between R groups, rather than interactions
between backbone constituents
• These interactions between R groups include
hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic
interactions, and van der Waals interactions
• Strong covalent bonds called disulfide bridges
may reinforce the protein’s structure
Tertiary structure
Transthyretin
polypeptide
Figure 5.18d
Exploring: Levels of Protein Structure
Hydrogen
bond
Hydrophobic
interactions and
van der Waals
interactions
Disulfide
bridge Ionic bond
Polypeptide
backbone
Collagen
Figure 5.20h
Figure 5.20g
Heme
Iron
β subunit
α subunit
α subunit
β subunit
Hemoglobin
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sickle-Cell Disease: A Change in Primary Structure
4 α
5
6
7 5 µm
β α
β is reduced.
4
5 α
6
7 5 µm
β α
10 mm
Figure 5.21b
10 mm
What Determines Protein Structure?
Results
1 Synthesis of
mRNA
mRNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
Figure 5.25-2
DNA
1 Synthesis of
mRNA
mRNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
mRNA
2 Movement of
mRNA into
cytoplasm
Figure 5.25-3
DNA
1 Synthesis of
mRNA
mRNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
mRNA
2 Movement of
mRNA into Ribosome
cytoplasm
3 Synthesis
of protein
Amino
Polypeptide acids
▪ Each gene along a DNA molecule directs synthesis of
a messenger RNA (mRNA)
▪ The mRNA molecule interacts with the cell’s protein-
synthesizing machinery to direct production of a
polypeptide
▪ The flow of genetic information can be summarized
as DNA → RNA → protein
Sugar-phosphate backbone
5¢ end Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines
5¢C
3¢C
Nucleoside
Nitrogenous
base Cytosine (C) Thymine (T, in DNA) Uracil (U, in RNA)
5¢C Purines
1¢C
Phosphate 3¢C
group Sugar
5¢C
(pentose)
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
3¢C (b) Nucleotide
Sugars
3¢ end
(a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid
3¢C
Nucleoside
Nitrogenous
base
5¢C
1¢C
Phosphate 3¢C
5¢C group Sugar
(pentose)
3¢C (b) Nucleotide
3¢ end
(a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid
Figure 5.26c
Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines
Deoxyribose Ribose
Adenine (A) Guanine (G) (in DNA) (in RNA)
5¢ 3¢ Sugar-phosphate
backbones
Hydrogen bonds
Polysaccharides:
Cellulose (plants) Strengthens plant cell walls
Monosaccharide Starch (plants) Stores glucose for energy
monomer
Glycogen (animals) Stores glucose for energy
Chitin (animals and fungi) Strengthens exoskeletons and
fungal cell walls
3 fatty
acids