Discrete Mathematics(MATH2113)

Mr. Sajid Hussain

M.Phil Mathematics

Lecture 4
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Previous Lectures Summary

•Different forms of arguments

•Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens

•Additional Valid Arguments

•Valid Argument with False Conclusion

•Invalid argument with a true Conclusion

•Converse and Inverse error

•Contradictions and valid arguments

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Predicates and Quantified statements I

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Today’s Lecture
• Predicates
• Set Notation
• Universal and Existential Statement
• Translating between formal and informal language
• Universal conditional Statements
• Equivalent Form of Universal and Existential
statements
• Implicit Qualification
• Negations of Universal and Existential statements
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Predicates
A predicate is a sentence which contains finite number of
variables and becomes a statement when specific values
are substituted for the variables.

The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all values that

may be substituted in place of the variable

Truth Set
If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of
P(x) is the set of all elements of D that make P(x) true
when substituted for x. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by
{x  D | P ( x)}

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read as “the set of all x in D such that P(x)”.
Notation
For any two predicates P(x) and Q(x), the notation
P ( x)  Q( x) means that every element in the truth set of
P(x) is in the truth set of Q(x). The notation P( x)  Q( x)
means that P and Q have identical truth sets.

Consider the predicate:

x  0, xR

The truth set of the above predicate is

x  R 
x  0
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Cont…

Example
Let P(x) = x is a factor of 8, Q(x)= x is a factor of 4
and R(x)= x < 5 and x  3 . The domain of x is
assumed to be Z . Use symbols  ,  to indicate


true relationships among P(x), Q(x) and R(x).

a. The truth set of P(x) is {1,2,4,8}, Q(x) is {1,2,4}.

Since every element in the truth set of Q(x) is in the
truth set of P(x), So Q( x)  P( x)

b. The truth Set of R(x) is {1,2,4}, which is identical to

the truth set of Q(x). Hence . Q( x)  R( x)
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Cont…
Let Q(x, y) be the statement
x+y=x−y
where the domain for x and y is the set of all real numbers.
Determine the truth value of:
(a) Q(5,−2).
(b) Q(4.7, 0).
(c) Determine the set of all pairs of numbers, x and y, such that
Q(x, y) is true.
Solution:
(a) Q(5,−2) says that 5 + (−2) = 5 − (−2), or 3= 7, which is false.
(b) Q(4.7, 0) says that 4.7+ 0 = 4.7 − 0, which is true.
(c) x + y = x − y if and only if x + 2y = x, which is true if and only if
y = 0. Therefore, x can be any real number and y must be zero.
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Universal and Existential Statements

Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. A

universal statement is of the form “ x  D, Q( x) ”. It is
true if and only if Q(x) is true for all x in D and it is
false if and only if Q(x) is false for at least one x in D.
A value for x for which Q(x) is false is called a
counterexample to the universal statement.

Example: Let D={1,2,3,4,5} and consider the

statement x  D, x 2  x. Show that this statement is
true. " x 2  x ".
Solution: Check that is true for each individual
x in D. 12  1 32  3 52  5
22  2 42  4 62  6 9
Cont…..
Hence x  D, x  x. is true.
2

The technique used in first statement while showing the

truthness of the universal statement is called method of
exhaustion.

Consider the statement x  R, x  x. Find the counter

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example to show that this statement is not true.

Counter example . Take x=1/2, then x is in R and
2
1 1
   
2 2

Hence x  R , x 2
 x. is false. 10
Existential Quantifier
Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of
x. An existential statement is of the form.
x  D such that Q(x)
It is true if and only if Q(x) is true for at least
one x in D. It is false if and only if Q(x) is
false for all x in D.
The symbol  denotes “there exist” and is
called the existential quantifier.

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Truth and falsity of Existential statements
Suppose P(x) is the predicate “x < |x|.” Determine the
truth value of ∃ x s.t. P(x) where the domain for x is:
(a) the three numbers 1, 2, 3.
(b) the six numbers −2,−1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
Solution
(a) P(1), P(2), and P(3) are all false because in each
case x = |x|. Therefore, ∃ x such that P(x) is false for
this domain.
(b) If we begin checking the six values of x, we find
P(−2) is true. It states that −2 < |−2|. We need to check
no further; having one case that makes the predicate
true is enough to guarantee that ∃ x s.t. P(x) is true.
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Truth and falsity of Existential statements

Consider the statement m  Z s.t. m 2  m. Show

that this statement is true.
Sol: observe that 1  1. Thus
2
m 2
 m is true for at
least one integer m . Hence m  Z s.t. m 2  m is
true.

Let E={5,6,7,8,9,10} and consider the statement

m  E s.t. m 2  m

Show that this statement is false.

m  E is
Sol: the statement  m for every value of
m 2 true
s.t.not
the E. Thus is false. 13
Translating from formal to informal language

Rewrite the following statements in a variety of

equivalent but more informal ways. Do not use the
symbol , 

a) x  R, x 2  0.
b) x  R, x 2  1.
c) m  Z s.t. m  m
2

Solution: a) we can write the statement in many ways

like “ All real numbers have non negative squares”,
“No real number has a negative square”,
“ x has a non negative square, for each value of x”. 14
 Cont….
b). Similarly we can translate the second statement in
these ways.
“ All real numbers have squares not equal to -1”,
“No real number have square equal to -1”.

c). “There is an integer whose square is equal to itself”,

“we can find at least one integer equal to its own
square”

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Cont…
Write the following statement in English, using the
predicates
F(x): “x is a Freshman”
T (x, y): “x is taking y”
where x represents students and y represents courses:

∃x (F(x) ∧ T (x, Discrete Math))

Solution
The statement ∃ x (F(x)∧T (x, Discrete)) says that there
is a student x with two properties: x is a freshman and x
is taking Discrete. In English, “Some Freshman is taking
Discrete Math.”
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Translating from informal Language to Formal language
“Every freshman at the College is taking CSC 102.”
Solution: There are various ways to answer this question,
depending on the domain.
• If we take as our domain all freshmen at the College
and use the predicate T (x) : “x is taking CSC 102”,
then the statement can be written as ∀x, T(x).
• We are making a conditional statement:
“If the student is a freshman, then the student is taking

CSC 101;”
∀x, (F(x) → T (x)).
Note that we cannot say ∀ x (F(x) ∧ T (x)), because this
says that every student is a freshman, which is not 17

something we can assume here.

Cont…..
“Every freshman at the College is taking some Computer
Science course.”

Sol: If we take as our domain for people all freshmen at

the College and our domain for courses, all Computer
Science courses.
Then we can use the predicate

T (x, y): “x is taking y”

The statement can be written as

∀x ∃y T(x, y).
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Universal Conditional Statements
A reasonable argument can be made that the most
important form of statement in mathematics is the
universal conditional statement:
∀ x, if P(x) then Q(x)
Example: “Everyone who visited France stayed in
Paris.”
Sol: However, if we take all people as the universe ,
then we need to introduce the predicate F(x) for “x
visited France.” and P(x) is the predicate “x stayed in
Paris.” In this case, the proposition can be written as

∀ x, (F(x) → P(x)).
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• We can write the following statements in a
variety of informal ways.
x  R, if x  2 then x 2  4
Sol:
• if a real number is greater then 2, then the
square is greater than 4.
• Whenever a real number is greater then 2, its
square is greater than 4.
• The squares of real number, greater than 2,
are greater than 4.
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Exercise
Rewrite the following statements in the form
∀ ,if then .

a) If a real number is an integer, then it is a rational

number.
a) All bytes have eight bits.
b) No fire trucks are green.

Sol: a). x  R , ifx  Z , thenx  Q.

b). ∀ x, if x is a byte, then x has eight bits.

c). ∀ x, if x is a fire truck, then x is not green.

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Equivalent Forms of Universal and Existential statements

Observe that the two statements “∀ real

numbers x, if x is an integer then x is
rational” and “∀ integers x, x is rational”
mean the same thing.
In fact, a statement of the form
x  U , if P(x) then Q(x).
Can always be rewritten in the form
x  D, Q ( x )
Can be rewritten as
∀x, if x is in D then Q(x).
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Contd.
The following statements are equivalent
∀ polygons P, if P is square, then P is a rectangle.
And
∀ squares P, P is a rectangle

The existential statements

∃ x belongs to U such that P(x) and Q(x).

And
∃ x belongs to D such that Q(x)

Are also equivalent provided D is taken to consist of all elements in

U that make P(x) true.

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Equivalence form for existential statement

The following statements are equivalent:

∃ a number n such that n is prime and n is even
And
∃ a prime number n such that n is even.

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Implicit Quantifications
• Consider “ If a number is an integer, then it is a
rational number”
The clue to indicate its universal quantifications comes
from the presence of the indefinite article “a”.

Existential quantification can also be implicit.

for instance, “ the number 24 can be written as a sum of
sum of two integers”
“∃ even integers m and n such that 24=m + n.”

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Negations of Quantified Statement
The negation of the statement of the form
∀ x in D, Q(x)
is logically equivalent to a statement of the
form
∃ x in D such that ~Q(x)
Symbolically:
~ (x  D, Q( x))  x  D  ~ Q( x).
Note: the negation of universal statement is
logically equivalent to existential statement.

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Cont….
The negation of the statement of the form
∃ x in D such that Q(x)
is logically equivalent to a statement of the
form
∀ x in D, ~Q(x)
Symbolically:

~ (x  D  Q( x))  x  D, ~ Q( x).

Note: the negation of existential statement is
logically equivalent to universal statement.

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Examples
Negate “Some integer x is positive and all integers
y are negative.”
Solution: Using all integers as the universe for x and y,
the statement is ∃ x s.t. (x > 0) ∧ ∀ y, (y < 0). The
negation is
~{∃x (x > 0) ∧ ∀ y (y < 0)}≡ ~∃x s.t. (x > 0) ∨ ~∀y, (y <
0): by De Morgan’s law
≡ ∀ x, ~(x > 0) ∨ ∃ y s.t. ~(y < 0) properties of negation
≡ ∀ x, (x ≤ 0) ∨ ∃ y s.t. (y ≥ 0).

Therefore, the negation is “Every integer x is non

positive or there is an integer y that is nonnegative.”

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Cont….
Negate “There is a student who came late to class
and there is a student who is absent from class.”
Solution: In symbols, if L(x) : “x came late to class” and
A(x) : “x is absent from class,” this statement can be
written as ∃ x st L(x) ∧ ∃ y st A(y).
Note that we must use a second variable y. By one of
De Morgan’s laws the negation can be written as
~(∃ x st L(x)) ∨ ~(∃ y st A(x)) ≡ ∀x, ~L(x) ∨ ∀ y, ~A(x).

In English this is “No student came late to class or no

student is absent from class.”

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Lecture Summary

• Predicates
• Set Notation
• Universal and Existential Statement
• Translating between formal and informal language
• Universal conditional Statements
• Equivalent Form
• Implicit Qualification
• Negations

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