Conceptualize “problem” as behavior…

• behavioral excess
– e.g., biting nails, smoking, partying Zero frequency?

• behavioral deficit
– e.g., social interactions, swimming,
volunteering answers in class

• determined by the practices of the culture

– social validity
Shaping
 generating the target behavior by differentially
reinforcing successive approximations to it

Differential reinforcement
 at each stage, if a response meets or exceeds a given
criterion, it is reinforced; if not, it is not reinforced

Successive approximation
 the criterion for reinforcement at the current stage, is a
response that more closely resembles the target behavior
than at the preceding stage

Variability
 responding must vary so that closer approximations occur
and can be reinforced
 Shaping
1. Specify final desired behavior.
– Says “Tom”
2. Identify a behavior that could be used as a starting point.
– Makes any sound
3. Choose shaping steps (successive approximations).
a) Makes any sound
b) Says “T”
c) Says “To”
d) Says “Tom”
4. Move along at correct pace.
– Too quickly?
– Too slowly?
 Shaping
spoken by
teacher
Stage ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

1. Say “Tom” Makes any sound Praise added

2. Say “Tom” Says “T” Praise added

3. Say “Tom” Says “To” Praise added

4. Say “Tom” Says “Tom” Praise added

Starting contingency
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

Makes any sound Praise added

Terminal contingency
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

Says “Tom” Praise added

A starting behavior (makes any sound) that occurs with greater than
zero frequency and at least remotely resembles the terminal behavior
(says “Tom”) is reinforced. Over time, successive approximations (e.g.,
makes “T” sound) to the terminal behavior are reinforced and
preceding approximations are extinguished. Ultimately, only the
terminal behavior produces the reinforcer.
14. Give an example of how shaping might be
accidentally used to develop undesirable behavior.
Describe some of the shaping steps in your example.
 Shaping

Stage ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

Attention added
1. Parent + request Falls to floor
Demand removed
Attention added
2. Parent + request Throws self to floor
Demand removed
Attention added
3. Parent + request Lightly bangs head on floor
Demand removed
Heavily bangs head on Attention added
4. Parent + request floor Demand removed
Starting contingency
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
Attention added
Falls to floor
Demand removed

Terminal contingency
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
Heavily bangs head on Attention added
floor Demand removed

A starting behavior (falls to floor) that occurs with greater than zero
frequency and at least remotely resembles the terminal behavior
(heavily bangs head on floor) is reinforced. Over time, successive
approximations (e.g., throws self to floor) to the terminal behavior are
reinforced and preceding approximations are extinguished. Ultimately,
only the terminal behavior produces the reinforcer.
 Factors influencing effectiveness of shaping
1. Specify final desired behavior
– greater than zero frequency?
– good operational definition
• specify all relevant dimensions
• problem with reinforcing outcome

Stage ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

1. Say “Tom” Makes any sound Praise added
2. Say “Tom” Says “T” Praise added
3. Say “Tom” Says “To” Praise added
4. Say “Tom” Says “Tom” Praise added
Stage ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

1. swim length < 20 sec Praise added

2. swim length < 19 sec Praise added
3. swim length < 18 sec Praise added
4. swim length < 17 sec Praise added

Bad
Stage ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
1. Fingers together Praise added
Fingers together + roll
2. shoulder into ear Praise added
Fingers together + roll
3. shoulders into ear + arm Praise added
comes over straight
4. Etc.
 Factors influencing effectiveness of shaping

2. Choose starting behavior

– good operational definition
– greater than zero frequency?
– approximation?

Stage ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

1. Say “Tom” Makes any sound Praise added
2. Say “Tom” Says “T” Praise added
3. Say “Tom” Says “To” Praise added
4. Say “Tom” Says “Tom” Praise added
 Factors influencing effectiveness of shaping

3. Choose shaping steps

– good operational definition
– step size
– flexibility

Stage ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

1. Say “Tom” Makes any sound Praise added
2. Say “Tom” Says “T” Praise added
3. Say “Tom” Says “Tom” Praise added
 Factors influencing effectiveness of shaping
4. Move along at correct pace?
– too fast?
• next behavior has greater than zero frequency?
– too slow?
– Martin & Pear’s rule of thumb

“If you are not sure when to move the learner to a new
approximation, use the following rule. Move to the next
step when the learner performs the current step correctly
in 6 of 10 trials, usually with 1 or 2 trials less perfect than
desired and one or two trials in which the behavior is
better than the current step.” (page 105)
7. List five aspects of behavior that can be shaped.

1. Topography
– E.g., Scott et al.(1997)

2. Frequency
– E.g., Foxx & Rubinoff (1979)

3. Duration

4. Latency

5. Intensity
Participant
 21-yr old international level pole vaulter (UVic)

Problem
 goal is to transfer energy developed by vaulter to the bending
pole
 best transfer occurs by adopting wide grip and maximizing
ground-to-pole angle
 maximum angle is obtained by full arm extenuation at take-off
(2.54 m)
 maximum angle NEVER displayed
Procedure
 multiple jumps per session
 over 15 baseline sessions mean hand height = 2.25 m
 for intervention, photoelectric beam set across runway first at
height = 2.30 m
 as vaulter ran down runway, “reach!” shouted (prompt) at
distance of 9 m from plant box
 vaulter heard feedback (beep) when photoelectric beam
broken (achieved desired height)
 continued until 3 or more consecutive sessions at 90%
 moved on to 2.35, then 2.40, then 2.45, then 2.52 m
 Starting contingency
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
Back arm stretched
2.30 m high Beep added

Terminal contingency
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
Back arm stretched
2.52 m high Beep added

A starting behavior (back arm stretched 2.30 m high) that occurs with
greater than zero frequency and at least remotely resembles the terminal
behavior (back arms stretched 2.52 m high) is reinforced. Over time,
successive approximations (e.g., back arm stretched 2.35 m high) to the
terminal behavior are reinforced and preceding approximations are
extinguished. Ultimately, only the terminal behavior produces the reinforcer.
Three Participants
• consumed > 8 cups (1000 mg) of brewed coffee per day
– level considered to be potentially quite harmful
• bothered by “coffee nerves”
• expressed desire to REDUCE daily coffee consumption

Goal
• decrease daily caffeine intake to < 5 cups (600 mg) of brewed
coffee per day
Treatment
• to yield amount of caffeine reduction for 4 phases:
– desired goal (600 mg) subtracted from baseline mean (e.g., 1000 mg)
and divided by 4 (e.g., 100 mg)
• if below criterion level on all days during a phase:
– earned back portion of pretreatment deposit
– earned bonus money
– remained eligible for larger bonus at end
• if above criterion on any day:
– forfeited that portion of deposit
– no bonus money for that phase
– no longer eligible for larger bonus at end
– treatment phase recycled from that day
 Starting contingency
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
¼ of deposit returned
Drink < 900 mg Bonus $
caffeine daily
Eligible for big bonus $

Terminal contingency
ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
¼ of deposit returned
Drink < 600 mg Bonus $
caffeine daily
Eligible for big bonus $

A starting behavior (drink < 900 mg caffeine daily) that occurs with greater
than zero frequency and at least remotely resembles the terminal behavior
(drink < 600 mg caffeine daily) is reinforced. Over time, successive
approximations (e.g., drink < 800 mg caffeine daily) to the terminal
behavior are reinforced and preceding approximations are extinguished.
Ultimately, only the terminal behavior produces the reinforcer.