DESIGN OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

1. Wastewater standards
2. Preliminary treatment
3. Primary sedimentation
4. Secondary waste water treatment
5. Oxygen transfer and mixing
6. Attached-growth biological systems
7. Advanced biological treatment systems
8. Secondary clarification
9. Disinfection
10.Solids handling and treatment systems
 REFERENCE

Environmental Engineering Principles and Practice, Richard O. Mines, Jr., School of

Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, USA, Wiley Blackwell, 2014.
 1. WASTEWATER STANDARDS

Designing domestic wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) requires:

- Knowledge of the wastewater characteristics
- Waste water
- The effluent requirements

for proper selection of the treatment system.

 WWTP

Unit
Processes
operations

Grit sedimentati Sludge Chemical Biological

Screening
removal on dewatering reaction reaction
 WWTP

Residuals is
Liquid portion generated
during treatment
a. Secondary treatment

b. Advanced wastewater treatment (AWT)

 a. Secondary treatment

Secondary wastewater treatment: a biological process is used.

Objectives of secondary treatment are

- Remove organic matter (as measured by five-day biochemical oxygen demand, BOD5)
- Remove total suspended solids (TSS)
- Kill pathogens.

Most wastewater treatment facilities have parallel treatment trains, so that unit operations and
processes may be taken off-line for maintenance.
 b. Advanced waste water treatment
(AWT)
 AWT: produce higher quality effluent than can be accomplished with secondary
treatment.

 AWT are designed to remove nitrogen and phosphorus through biological and/or
chemical means.

 Additional BOD5 and TSS removals beyond those achieved during secondary
treatment are possible.

 Most AWT facilities include some type of effluent filtration prior to disinfection, which
results in lower effluent BOD5 and TSS concentrations.
 2. PRELIMINARY TREATMENT

Preliminary treatment: physical treatment involving

- Screening
- Grit removal
- Flow measurement
- Pumping
- Flow equalization
- Pre-aeration.

Purpose: remove large debris, paper, plastics, hair, grit, eggshells, coffee grinds, and
sand.

This is necessary to prevent accumulation of these materials in aeration basins, settling

tanks, and digesters.
 Grit: abrasive to pump impellers, pipes, and process equipment.

 Rags and hair: can clog pumps, flow meters, and valves.

 Chemicals such as chlorine or ozone are added to pre-disinfect and oxidize inorganic
compounds such as H2S.

 Other chemical species, used to minimize odor and corrosion problems at WWTPs,
include chlorine, ferrous sulfate, oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and potassium
permanganate.

 Where hydrogen sulfide is a concern, all equipment and components should be made
of stainless steel or other material resistant to corrosion.
 2.1. SCREENS
The first unit operation.

Mechanically or manually cleaned bar racks or trash racks are used first, followed by bar
screens with smaller openings. Bar racks have clear openings ranging from 1.5 – 6 inches
(38 – 150 mm). Bar racks are used for removing large objects such as logs, tires, or other
debris from entering the WWTP.

Mechanically cleaned coarse screens with openings from

1 – 2 inches (25 – 50 mm) are used for removing rags, paper, and other debris.

Bar racks and bar screens are made up of parallel bars or rods while fine screens
consisting of wires, grating, wire mesh, or perforated plates.
The head loss through a bar screen can be estimated from the following equation:

hL = head loss through bar screen, ft (m)

where:

C = discharge coefficient, 0.6 for clogged screen and 0.7 for a clean screen
VBS =velocity of flow through bar screen, fps (mps)
VA = velocity of approach in upstream channel, fps (mps)
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2 ).
 PROBLEM 1

Bar screen design

A mechanical bar screen with 1 inch openings and 5/8 inch bars is
installed in a rectangular channel where the approach velocity should not
exceed 2.0 ft per second. Estimate:
a) The velocity between the bars.
b) The head loss through the screen, assuming it is clean.
 SOLUTION
Part A
Assume that the width and depth of flow in the rectangular channel are W and D,
respectively. Estimate the net area of the openings in the bar screen by multiplying the
cross-sectional area of the rectangular channel by the ratio of the width of the bar
screen openings to the width of opening plus width of the bar as:
From the continuity equation:
where:
Q = volumetric flow rate, L3/time
AA = cross-sectional area of approach channel,
WD
ABS = net cross-sectional area of openings in bar
screen, 0.615WD.
Calculate the velocity of flow through the
bar screen, VBS, as:
Note that the velocity through the bar
screen (3.25 fps) is significantly larger
than the velocity of approach
(2.0 fps).
Part B
Estimate the head loss through the bar screen using Equation (7.3).

This is not an appreciable loss of energy or pressure drop. The head loss through
mechanically cleaned coarse screens is typically 6 inches (150 mm) of water.
 2.2. GRIT REMOVAL

Grit removal: after screening.

Grit consists of sand, silt, small gravel, cinders, coffee grounds, egg shells, and other inert
materials that typically have a specific gravity around 2.65.

These materials are abrasive, cause pump impellers to wear excessively, and accumulate in
tanks, digesters, and pipes.

Three major types of grit removal systems in use today are aerated chambers, horizontal
flow through basins, and vortex removal systems.
 3. PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION

Primary sedimentation or clarification follows preliminary treatment and is a unit

operation that involves the separation of settleable solids and the removal of oil, grease, and
scum that float to the surface of the wastewater.

Settleable solids are the portion of suspended solids that will settle out of solution under
the force of gravity, since their specific gravity is greater than 1.0.

Oil, grease, scum, and other floating materials rise to the surface since their specific
gravities are less than 1.0.
 4. SECONDARY WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Secondary wastewater treatment: the mechanism is a biological process.

There are two types:

 Suspended growth: the process contains microbes that are suspended in the
wastewater.
 Attached growth: microbes that are attached to some types of media.
 5. OXYGEN TRANSFER AND MIXING

Theory
The design of aeration systems for the activated sludge process is based on the two-film
theory by Lewis & Whitman and Fick’s Law of Diffusion.
1. Gas molecules are transported to the outer
face of the gas-film by mixing and
diffusion.
2. Then they diffuse across the gas-film to
the gas-liquid interface, where the gas
molecules dissolve in the liquid-film.
3. Next, the dissolved gas diffuses through
the liquid-film to the boundary between
the film and bulk liquid phase. Finally, the
dissolved gas molecules are transported
throughout the bulk liquid phase by
mixing.
 TYPES OF AERATION SYSTEMS

Rotors transfer oxygen into the oxygen diffuses through a diffuser stone or
wastewater by spraying the membrane, thereby transferring oxygen
wastewater into the atmosphere. into the wastewater.
 MIXING REQUIREMENTS

Sufficient oxygen must be supplied to the microorganisms so that biological processes

are not limited. Also, mixing requirements must be maintained so that the
microorganisms remain suspended in the aeration basin. If diffused aeration systems
are used, then a specified amount of air is required for mixing. The mixing requirement
for a mechanical aerator is based on the amount of energy supplied to the water, in
terms of power per unit volume.
 Aeration systems must be designed to meet the following two conditions:

1 Process oxygen requirements (oxygen

required to keep microorganisms alive):
 6. ATTACHED-GROWTH BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Media or inert packing material is used, on which the microorganisms grow.

Media that have been used include rock, gravel, slag, plastics, nylon, redwood, and
other synthetics.

The media remains stationary and the wastewater is applied to the media or flows
through a packed bed of inert material.

The alternative is to have the media rotate through the wastewater. In both types of
systems, the microbial growth that forms on the media is known as a biofilm.
The heterogeneous culture of organisms in the biofilm convert organic carbon and
nutrients into new biomass, with a portion oxidized to meet energy needs.

Attached growth systems may be operated as aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic processes.

The media or packing material may be completely submerged in liquid, partially

submerged, or not submerged.

There are two types of attached growth processes:

a. Trickling filters
b. Rotating biological contactors (RBCs)
 A. TRICKLING FILTERS
Trickling filters do not filter the wastewater like a traditional sand filter..

The biomass growing on the media uses the organic matter, along with a portion of the
nitrogen and phosphorus, to grow new microorganisms.

Primary clarifiers must precede trickling filters to remove suspended solids that can
clog the openings on the distribution arms of trickling filters.

The pressure of the wastewater discharging from the distributor arms provides the
driving force causing the arms to rotate.
 A schematic diagram of
a conventional trickling filter system
Trickling filters employ
the recycle of effluent
back through the units to
keep them moist at all
times and to increase
removal of organics from
the wastewater.
Figure 7.38 shows a
trickling filter with
rock media that
contains no
biological growth
on it since it has
been taken out of
service.
 B. ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS

The disks are typically submerged 40% into the wastewater and rotate from 1–2 revolutions
per minute (RPM).

As the disks rotate through the wastewater, a biological slime or biofilm grows on the media.
The biofilm adsorbs organics and nutrients as it passes through the wastewater and the
microorganisms utilize these for synthesizing new biomass and oxidizing some of the organics
for energy.

Oxygen is transferred to the biofilm as it rotates out of the wastewater and is exposed to air.
Typically, fiberglass covers are provided to protect the RBCs from UV light,
inclement weather, and exposure to sunlight which causes problems with algal
growth.

In some cases, the RBCs are enclosed in a building, which must be well ventilated,
and the off-gas is collected and treated for hydrogen sulfide and other potential
volatile organic carbons that may be in the wastewater.
 7. ADVANCED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
SYSTEMS
Advanced waste water treatment (AWT): remove nitrogen and phosphorus, along with
additional BOD and TSS.

AWT systems use both chemical and biological unit processes, along with physical unit
operations such as dual-media filters.

Both attached-growth and suspended-growth biological processes are used, which may be

operated in anaerobic, anoxic, or aerobic environments.

All biological nutrient removal (BNR) processes should be equipped with
chemical feed systems in order to have the ability to add coagulants such as
alum or lime to precipitate phosphorus when an upset occurs to the
biological process.

Higher quality effluent can also be achieved with the addition of filters
following BNR treatment and clarification.
AWT systems may also use chemical systems for removing nitrogen and phosphorus.

Ammonium nitrogen can be converted to ammonia gas (NH3) by adding lime or sodium
hydroxide to raise the pH above 11 and then passing the wastewater through a stripper to
remove the ammonia.

Phosphorus, in the form of orthophosphate (PO43−), is easily removed from waste water by
adding alum or lime for precipitation as aluminum phosphate or calcium phosphate.
 8. SECONDARY CLARIFICATION
If biological processes are operated properly, it is essential that secondary clarifiers be
designed correctly.

For suspended-growth systems, such as activated sludge, secondary clarifiers must be

designed to accomplish both clarification and thickening of solids.
When mixed liquor from the activated sludge process enters the secondary clarifier, two process
streams are produced.
1. The clarified secondary effluent.
2. The other a more concentrated stream called the underflow.

Clarification relates to the removal of suspended solids that enter the clarifier so that effluent
standards can be met.
Thickening of the biomass at the bottom of the clarifier to produce an underflow, or thickened
sludge, at solids concentrations ranging from 5,000 to 15,000 mg/L, is also desired.
 9. DISINFECTION

Purpose: kill and inactivate disease-causing organisms (pathogens) such as bacteria, protozoa,
helminths, and viruses.

Wastewater must be disinfected in situations where humans may come in contact with it.

Disinfection is not the same as sterilization, which is the destruction of all organisms.
Effluent from WWTPs is disinfected before it is released back into the environment, either
discharged to a receiving water body or used for irrigation of crops, golf courses, or parks.

Historically, chlorine has been the disinfectant of choice, since it is effective at killing
pathogens and is economical compared to other disinfection methods.

However, chlorine must be removed from the final effluent prior to discharging to a water
body, because it is toxic to aquatic organisms.
In some cities, municipalities have stopped using chlorine, due to safety concerns during
transport to the site.

In some states, disinfection must be preceded by filtration for the removal of suspended
solids, which can inhibit the effectiveness of the disinfectant.
Disinfection is accomplished by one of four methods:

1. Chemical agents.

2. Physical agents.

3. Mechanical means.

4. Radiation.
 CHEMICAL AGENTS
The main chemical agents used include chlorine and its various forms:
- Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)

- Chloramines (NCl3, NHCl2, and NH2Cl)

- Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
- Calcium hypochlorite (Ca2OCl)

- Along with ozone (O3)

Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent and effectively kills bacteria, viruses, and cysts.

The problem with ozone, however, is that no residual is formed, and chlorine or other
disinfectant must be added following ozonation to provide a disinfectant residual if
the treated wastewater is to be distributed in a reuse distribution system.

Ozone has a half-life of 20–30 minutes in distilled water at 20 ∘C. In the presence of
oxidant-demanding materials in solution, this half-life will be shortened.
PHYSICAL AGENTS

- Heat
- Light
- Sound waves
 HEAT
- Heating wastewater to boiling point is, of course, not practical.

- However, the ultraviolet (UV) radiation spectrum of sunlight is effective at

inactivating pathogens. Low-pressure and medium-pressure UV lamps are now
being used to disinfect wastewater. These lamps typically generate monochromatic
radiation at a wavelength of 254 nm, which is effective for microbial inactivation.
- Using UV radiation as the major disinfectant requires a low turbidity or suspended
solids concentration in the wastewater, since these species absorb the UV light and
shield microorganisms from exposure.

- UV radiation systems are expensive, and the light bulbs are housed in quartz glass
sleeves that must be periodically cleaned to prevent the build-up of scale and
biological growth that may occur.

- As with ozonation, an auxiliary disinfectant must be added if the wastewater is to

be reused.
 MECHANICAL MEANS

Mechanical means are those methods that remove potential pathogens from the
wastewater as it passes through screens, grit chambers, or settling basins.

Gamma radiation and electron beam technology have also been used to disinfect
wastewater and sludge.
Chemical addition with chlorine or ozone and UV treatment are the primary means of
disinfecting wastewater today.

Both ozonation and UV radiation offer the advantage of not having to remove chlorine if
the effluent is discharged to surface waters.

Ozone and UV treatment also eliminate concerns over the production of triohalomethanes
and haloacetic acids, which are chlorinated organic species, and suspected carcinogens
that result when chlorine is added to water containing organic compounds.
 10. SOLIDS HANDLING AND TREATMENT
SYSTEMS

The primary sources of solids or residuals at wastewater treatment plants include

screens, grit chambers, primary clarifiers, secondary clarifiers, tertiary clarifiers, and
digesters.

The solids produced from screening the wastewater consists of paper, plastics, hair,
rocks, rags, leaves, tree limbs, and other debris that must be disposed of in a sanitary
landfill.
Grit chambers remove sand, gravel, egg shells, coffee grounds, glass, and bone
chips.

Typically, grit separators and grit washers are used in conjunction with grit
removal chambers.

Solids from grit chambers are transported to a landfill for disposal.

Primary clarifiers generate primary sludge that contains organic matter and
pathogens.

Primary sludge generally has a solids content ranging from 5–9%.

Due to the high organic content, anaerobic digestion is a prime candidate for
stabilization of primary sludge.
Secondary clarifiers generate secondary sludge.

If attached biological systems are used, the sludge is called “humus” with solids
concentrations ranging from 1–3%.

Suspended growth processes generate waste-activated sludge at solids concentrations

from 0.5–1.5%.

Secondary sludge consists primarily of microorganisms or biomass, and aerobic

digestion is often used for stabilizing waste-activated sludge.
Aerobic digestion generally produces a sludge at a solids concentration ranging from 0.8–
7.0%.

Chemical sludge or precipitate is produced when chemicals such as aluminum sulfate or

lime is added to precipitate phosphorus from wastewater.

Sometimes this is accomplished during primary sedimentation or secondary clarification.

Chemical addition may also take place after secondary treatment, in a tertiary clarifier.

Chemical sludge is often handled separately, since it normally does not contain a lot of organic
matter.

At large WWTPs, it may prove economical to reclaim and reuse chemicals from a chemical
sludge.

Sludge from municipal wastewater treatment facilities that has been properly stabilized is called
“biosolids”. Biosolids that do not contain high concentrations of metals or pathogens can be
safely applied to the land, which promotes the beneficial reuse of sludge solids.
 GROUP STUDY

STUDY A PRACTICAL WASTEWATER

TREATMENT SYSTEM