Chapter 2: Mathematical Models of Systems

Objectives

We use quantitative mathematical models of physical systems to design and

analyze control systems. The dynamic behavior is generally described by
ordinary differential equations. We will consider a wide range of systems,
including mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical. Since most physical systems are
nonlinear, we will discuss linearization approximations, which allow us to use
Laplace transform methods.

We will then proceed to obtain the input–output relationship for components and
subsystems in the form of transfer functions. The transfer function blocks can be
organized into block diagrams or signal-flow graphs to graphically depict the
interconnections. Block diagrams (and signal-flow graphs) are very convenient
and natural tools for designing and analyzing complicated control systems

Illustrations
 Introduction
Six Step Approach to Dynamic System Problems

• Define the system and its components

• Formulate the mathematical model and list the necessary
assumptions
• Write the differential equations describing the model
• Solve the equations for the desired output variables
• Examine the solutions and the assumptions
• If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system

Illustrations
 Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Ta( t )  Ts( t) 0

Ta( t ) Ts ( t )

( t ) s( t )  a( t )

Ta( t ) = through - variable

angular rate difference = across-variable

Illustrations
 Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Electrical Inductance Describing Equation Energy or Power

d 1 2
v 21 L i E  L i
dt 2

Translational Spring
2
1 d 1 F
v 21  F E 
k dt 2 k

Rotational Spring
2
1 d 1 T
21  T E 
k dt 2 k

Fluid Inertia

d 1 2
P21 I Q E  I Q
dt 2

Illustrations
 Differential Equation of Physical Systems
Electrical Capacitance

d 1 2
i C v 21 E  M  v 21
dt 2
Translational Mass

d 1 2
F M v2 E  M v2
dt 2
Rotational Mass

d 1 2
T J 2 E  J 2
dt 2
Fluid Capacitance

d 1 2
Q Cf  P21 E  Cf  P21
dt 2
Thermal Capacitance

d
q Ct T2 E Ct T2
dt

Illustrations
 Differential Equation of Physical Systems
Electrical Resistance

1 1 2
i  v 21 P  v 21
R R
Translational Damper

2
F b  v 21 P b  v 21

Rotational Damper

2
T b  21 P b  21

Fluid Resistance
1 1 2
Q  P21 P  P21
Rf Rf
Thermal Resistance

1 1
q  T21 P  T21
Rt Rt

Illustrations
 Differential Equation of Physical Systems

2
d d
M y ( t )  b  y ( t )  k y ( t ) r( t )
2 dt
dt

Illustrations
 Differential Equation of Physical Systems

t
v( t) d 1 
 C v ( t )    v ( t ) d t r( t )
R dt L 0

  1 t
y( t) K 1 e 
 sin  1 t   1 

Illustrations
 Differential Equation of Physical Systems

Illustrations
 Differential Equation of Physical Systems

K2  1  2  .5  2  10  2  2

  2 t
y ( t )  K2 e 
 sin  2 t   2 
  2 t   2 t
y1( t )  K2 e y2( t)  K2 e

y ( t)

y1 ( t ) 0
y2 ( t )

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t

Illustrations
 Linear Approximations

Illustrations
 Linear Approximations

Linear Systems - Necessary condition

Principle of Superposition

Property of Homogeneity

Taylor Series
http://www.maths.abdn.ac.uk/%7Eigc/tch/ma2001/notes/node46.html

Illustrations
 Linear Approximations – Example 2.1

m 15
M  200gm g  9.8 L  100cm  0  0rad      
s
2 16
 
T0  M  g  L sin  0

T1   M  g  L sin  

 
T2   M  g  L cos  0     0  T0 

10

T 1(  )
0
T 2(  )

10
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4


Illustrations
Students are encouraged to investigate linear approximation accuracy for different values of 0
 The Laplace Transform

Historical Perspective - Heaviside’s Operators

Origin of Operational Calculus (1887)

Illustrations
 Historical Perspective - Heaviside’s Operators
Origin of Operational Calculus (1887)

t
d 1  v = H(t)
p  1 du
dt p 
0

v Expanded in a power series

i Z( p ) R  L p
Z( p )

R 1 2 3 
i
1
 H( t )
1
 H( t )
1
   R 1
     R 1
   .....  H( t )
R L p  L 2  L 
L p  1 
R  L p R  3
  p p 
 L p 

n
1 t
 H( t )
n n
p

  R
    t
1 R  R  2 t2  R  3 t3  1  L 
i    t          ..  i 1  e   
R L  L  2  L  3   R

(*) Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude, Paul J. Nahin, IEEE Press 1987 .
Illustrations
 The Laplace Transform

Definition


  s t
L( f ( t ) )  f ( t)  e dt = F(s)

0

Here the complex frequency is s   j w

The Laplace Transform exists when


  s t
 f ( t)  e dt  
 this means that the integral converges
0

Illustrations
 The Laplace Transform

Determine the Laplace transform for the functions

a) f1( t )  1 for t0


  s t
F1( s )   e dt =
1  ( s t ) 1
  e
0 s s

b)  ( a t )
f2( t ) e


  ( a t )  ( s t )
F2( s )  e e dt 1  [ ( s a)  t ] 1
 =  e F2( s )
0 s1 sa

Illustrations
 The Laplace Transform
Evaluate the laplace transform of the derivative of a function



 d f ( t) 
L  d  ( s t )
 
f ( t)  e dt
 dt  
dt
0
 
by the use of  u dv = u v   v du
 
where  ( s t )
u e dv df ( t )

and, from which

 ( s t )
du s  e  dt and v f ( t)
we obtain
 
 
f ( t )   s  e
 ( s t )  ( s t ) 


u dv = f ( t)  e 

 dt
0 0

  ( s t )
= -f(0+) + s f ( t)  e dt

0
L 
 d f ( t) 
 = sF(s) - f(0+) note that the initial condition is included in the transformation
 dt 
Illustrations
 The Laplace Transform
Practical Example - Consider the circuit.

The KVL equation is

d assume i(0+) = 5 A
4 i( t )  2 i( t) 0
dt
Applying the Laplace Transform, we have
  
  
  4 i( t)  2 d i( t)   e  ( s t )
4  i( t )  e
 ( s t )
d t  2 
d
i( t )  e
 ( s t )

  dt 0
 
dt 0
  dt  0 
dt
0 0

4 I( s )  2 ( s  I( s )  i( 0) ) 0 4 I( s )  2 s  I( s )  10 0

5 transforming back to the time domain, with our present knowledge of

I( s )  Laplace transform, we may say that
s2
t  ( 0  0.01 2)
6

 ( 2 t )
i( t )  5 e 4
i( t )
2

0
0 1 2
Illustrations t
 The Laplace Transform
The Partial-Fraction Expansion (or Heaviside expansion theorem)

Suppose that

s  z1 The partial fraction expansion indicates that F(s) consists of

F(s )
( s  p1 )  ( s  p2 ) a sum of terms, each of which is a factor of the denominator.
The values of K1 and K2 are determined by combining the
individual fractions by means of the lowest common
denominator and comparing the resultant numerator
or
coefficients with those of the coefficients of the numerator
K1 K2 before separation in different terms.
F(s ) 
s  p1 s  p2

Evaluation of Ki in the manner just described requires the simultaneous solution of n equations.
An alternative method is to multiply both sides of the equation by (s + pi) then setting s= - pi, the
right-hand side is zero except for Ki so that

( s  pi )  ( s  z1 )
Ki s = - pi
( s  p1 )  ( s  p2 )
Illustrations
 The Laplace Transform
Property Time Domain Frequency Domain

 ( s T )
e  F( s )
1. Time delay f ( t  T)  u ( t  T)

 F

1 s

2. Time scaling f ( at ) a a

3. Frequency differentiation d
t f ( t)  F( s )
ds

4. Frequency shifting  ( a t )
f ( t)  e F( s  a)


f ( t) 
5. Frequency Integration  F( s ) d s
t 
0

6. Initial-value Theorem Lim( f ( t) ) f ( 0) Lim( s  F( s ) )

t -> 0 s -> infinite

7. Final-value Theorem Lim( f ( t ) ) Lim( s  F( s ) )

t -> infinite s -> 0

Illustrations
 The Laplace Transform

Useful Transform Pairs

Illustrations
 The Laplace Transform
Consider the mass-spring-damper system

( Ms  b )  yo
Y( s ) equation 2.21
2
Ms  bs  k

 s  b   y 
y( s )



M o s  2  n
s 2   b   s  k  2 2
    s  2  n  n
 M M

s1  
  n  n    1
2
k b
n 
M 2 k M 

 
2
s2   n  n    1

Roots
 
2
s1   n  j n  1  
Real
Real repeated
Imaginary (conjugates)
Complex (conjugates)
Illustrations
s2   2
  n  j n  1  
 The Laplace Transform

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

 R  1   I( s )
V1( s )   Z 1( s ) R
 Cs 
1
   I( s )
1 Z 2( s )
V2( s )   Cs
 Cs 
1
V2( s ) Cs Z2( s )
V1( s ) 1 Z1( s )  Z2( s )
R 
Cs

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Example 2.2

d2 d The partial fraction expansion yields:

y ( t)  4 y ( t)  3 y ( t) 2 r( t)
2 dt
dt
 3 1  
 
1  2
2 2 1 3 3
d Y( s )     
Initial Conditions: Y( 0) 1 y ( 0) 0 r( t) 1  ( s  1) ( s  3)   ( s  1) ( s  3)  s
dt
The Laplace transform yields: Therefore the transient response is:

s 2Y(s )  s y(0)  4(s Y(s )  y(0))  3Y(s ) 2 R( s ) y( t)  3  e t  1  e 3 t    1e t  1  e 3 t   2

   
2 2   3  3
Since R(s)=1/s and y(0)=1, we obtain:
The steady-state response is:
( s  4) 2
Y( s ) 
2 
s  4s  3 
2 
s  s  4s  3  lim y( t)
t 
2
3

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

 Kf if

Tm K1 Kf if( t )  ia( t )

field controled motor - Lapalce Transform

Tm( s ) K1 Kf Ia If( s )

Vf( s ) Rf  Lf s  If( s )
Tm( s ) TL( s )  Td ( s )

2
TL( s ) J s   ( s )  b  s   ( s )

rearranging equations

TL( s ) Tm( s )  Td ( s )

Tm( s ) Km If( s ) Td ( s ) 0

Vf( s ) Km
If( s )  (s )
Rf  Lf s
Vf( s )  
s  ( J s  b )  Lf s  Rf
Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

V 2( s ) 1
V 1( s ) RCs

V 2( s )
RCs
V 1( s )

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

V 2( s ) R 2R 1 C s  1
V 1( s ) R1

V 2( s ) R 1 C 1 s  1 R 2 C 2 s  1
V 1( s ) R 1 C 2 s

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

 (s ) Km
V f(s ) s  ( J s  b ) L f  s  R f 

 (s ) Km
V a( s ) s  R a  L a s  ( J s  b )  K b K m

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems
 (s ) Km
Vc( s ) s  s  1

J

( b  m)

m = slope of linearized
torque-speed curve
(normally negative)

 K 
Vo( s )
 R R 
 c q
Vc( s ) s  c  1 s  q  1
Lc Lq
c q
Rc Rq
For the unloaded case:
id 0 c q
0.05s  c  0.5s
V12 Vq V34 Vd

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems
Y( s ) K
X( s ) s ( Ms  B)
A  kx  A 
2
K B b  
kp  kp 
d d
kx g kp g
dx dP
g g ( x P) flow

A = area of piston

Gear Ratio = n = N1/N2

N2  L N1  m
L n  m

L n  m

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

V2( s ) R2 R2
V1( s ) R R1  R2
R2 
R  max

V2( s ) 
ks  1( s )   2( s ) 
V2( s ) ks  error( s )

Vbattery
ks
 max

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

V2( s ) Kt ( s ) Kt s   ( s )

Kt constant

V2( s ) ka
V1( s ) s  1

Ro = output resistance
Co = output capacitance

 Ro Co   1s
and is often negligible
for controller amplifier

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems
xo( t ) y ( t)  xin( t )

Xo( s ) 2
s
Xin( s ) 2
s   b s  k
 
M M

For low frequency oscillations, where   n

Xo j  
2

Xin j  k
M

T( s ) 1

Ct s   Q S  
q(s ) 1

 R
T To  Te = temperature difference due to thermal process
Ct = thermal capacitance
Q = fluid flow rate = constant
S = specific heat of water
Rt = thermal resistance of insulation
q( s ) = rate of heat flow of heating element

Illustrations
 The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

x r 

converts radial motion to linear motion

Illustrations
 Block Diagram Models

Illustrations
 Block Diagram Models

Illustrations
 Block Diagram Models
Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

Illustrations
 Block Diagram Models

Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

Illustrations
 Block Diagram Models
Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

Illustrations
 Block Diagram Models

Illustrations
 Block Diagram Models
Example 2.7

Illustrations
 Block Diagram Models Example 2.7

Illustrations
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

For complex systems, the block diagram method can become

difficult to complete. By using the signal-flow graph model, the
reduction procedure (used in the block diagram method) is not
necessary to determine the relationship between system
variables.

Illustrations
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

Y1( s ) G11( s )  R1( s )  G12( s )  R2( s )

Y2( s ) G21( s )  R1( s )  G22( s )  R2( s )

Illustrations
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

a11 x1  a12 x2  r1 x1

a21 x1  a22 x2  r2 x2

Illustrations
 Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example 2.8

Y( s ) G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4 1  L 3  L 4  G 5 G 6 G 7 G 8 1  L 1  L 2

R( s ) 1  L 1  L 2  L 3  L 4  L 1 L 3  L 1  L 4  L 2  L 3  L 2 L 4

Illustrations
 Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example 2.10

Y( s ) G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4
R( s ) 1  G 2 G 3 H 2  G 3 G 4 H 1  G 1 G 2 G 3 G 4 H 3

Illustrations
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

Y( s ) P1  P2  2  P3
R( s ) 

P1 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 P2 G1 G2 G7 G6 P3 G1 G2 G3 G4 G8
 1  L1  L2  L3  L4  L5  L6  L7  L8  L5 L7  L5 L4  L3 L4

1 3 1 2 1  L5 1  G4 H4

Illustrations
 Design Examples

Illustrations
 Design Examples

Speed control of an electric traction motor.

Illustrations
 Design Examples

Illustrations
 Design Examples

Illustrations
 Design Examples

Illustrations
 Design Examples

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

error

Sys1 = sysh2 / sysg4

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

error

Num4=[0.1];

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 The Simulation of Systems Using MATLAB

Illustrations
 Sequential Design Example: Disk Drive Read System

Illustrations
 Sequential Design Example: Disk Drive Read System

Illustrations
 Sequential Design Example: Disk Drive Read System

Illustrations
 P2.11

Illustrations
 P2.11

1 1 1
1
L c s  R c
 L d  L a  s   R d  R a J s  b s

Vq +Vd Id Tm

K1 K2 Km

Vc
-Vb K3
Ic 1
L q s  R q

Illustrations
Illustrations
 http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/sensitivity/index.htm

Illustrations
 http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/

Illustrations