Introduction to the

Leica Photogrammetry Suite

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

Exercise 1: Raw Scanned Imagery

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

Making Maps

 Mapping naturally requires accurate data

Scanned maps All need to accurately represent

Air Photographs features on the Earth’s surface
Multispectral Imagery and their exact geographic
Vector Coverages location

 ORTHORECTIFICATION used to create planimetrically and

geometrically correct data
What is Orthorectification?

ORTHORECTIFICATION
What is ORTHOrectification?

What is RECTIFICATION?
What is Rectification?

Also known as:

 Georectification

 Registration

 Geometric Correction

Definitions:

 Provide an image or coverage with a real coordinate system.

Using Projections, datums and spheroids

 Any point on a corrected image can be located using an X, Y

coordinate
Why rectify?

Gather coordinates from imagery

Integrate imagery into larger

projects

Mosaics

Use with GPS

Ground truthing
Why ORTHOrectify?

 There are geometric errors associated with satellite images and

aerial photographs

 Errors are caused by:

 Scale Variation
 Sensor Attitude/Orientation
 Internal Sensor Errors

 Orthorectification removes these errors

Scale Variation

 Occurs in all photography

House width = 8m

2 cm
Scale is 1:400

6 cm
Scale is 1:133

Scale varies across the photography

Scale Variation

 Scale varies across the image

 House width is constant (8m), width in photographs varies, therefore

scale varies
Sensor Attitude/Orientation

1 2

Vertical Oblique
3

More Oblique
Sensor Attitude

 Effect will be present but less obvious in Satellite Images and

Low-scale Air Photographs
Internal Sensor Errors
IMAGE or EXPOSURE PLANE

Lens distortion and

errors cause the
light rays to deviate
Planimetrically Correct

Orthorectification creates
planimetrically correct
images, which display
no relief displacement
Original Orthorectified
How to ORTHORECTIFY

 Single Images
 ERDAS IMAGINE Advantage™
 Leica Photogrammetry Suite

 Multiple overlapping images

 Leica Photogrammetry Suite
 Make a Block
 Inputting your Images
 Inside the Sensor
 The Sensor in Space
 Taking Control
Exercise 2: First the Inputs

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

First the Inputs

Starting off with Leica Photogrammetry Suite

 Make a Block

 Inputting your Images

 Inside the Sensor

 The Sensor in Space

 Taking Control
Make a Block

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

What is a BLOCK?

 A BLOCK is all the information needed to triangulate a set of air

photographs in one process

 This must include:

1. Photographs or images

2. Camera information

3. Control X,Y,Z

4. Projection, Spheroid, Datum Information

Definition: Virtual Image Plane
Image Plane
Film Negative

Focal Length

Virtual
Image Plane

Positive Image
Triangulation: Building Relationships
Camera information
(Exposure Station)

IMAG
SPA E Photographs
CE
or images

Control Points
(X,Y,(Z))

OB
JEC
TS
PAC
E
Triangulation

Triangulation calculates:

 The position and rotation of the camera each time an image was
exposed (Exterior Orientation Parameters)

 The X, Y and Z coordinates of tie points

Block Setup

User friendly WIZARD...

1. Create a New Block or Open an Existing

2. Enter a Filename for the block (*.blk)

3. Chose a Geometric model

4. Define Projection for the Block

5. Select Reference units

6. Define the Rotation System

Block Setup : Rotation Systems

 Omega, Phi and Kappa define the attitude or orientation of the

sensor when the imagery was captured.
Y is principle & Phi (+)
This format of Omega, Phi,
Kappa
Kappa is the most

Z
commonly used
convention (ISPRS) Y
Z-axis

X
Phi Phi+

axis
Y - Y is principle & Phi (-)

Z
X-a
xis X Y
Phi-
Omega
 Block Setup: Photo Direction
 Y-axis
 Z-axis
Used for close range, ground-
Used for aerial imagery
based photography

Optical axis: Z-axis of the

ground coordinate system Optical axis: Y-axis of the
ground coordinate system
Main LPS Tool

 Main LPS dialog appears after the WIZARD

 Controls the photogrammetric workflow

Inputting Your Images

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

What imagery can you use?

 Image Requirements
 Stereo Overlap
 Sensor Models

 Image Formats
 DLLs
 IMAGINE Import

 Getting images into LPS

Image Requirements

 A block should have at least one pair of images which overlap:

Overlap Region

60% Overlap
Stereo Pair

Forward Overlap
Overlap between Runs or Swaths

30% overlap between

runs or swaths

Run #1
Not essential but can help
Run #2
Side Overlap
Cameras and Sensors

 The model chosen during Setup defines the geometric

properties of the sensor or camera used to capture your images

 To some extent the models control the imagery used in LPS

Cameras and Sensors

Two groups:

 Camera - one perspective center

 Pushbroom Sensors - data is Perspective

collected along a scan line, each Centers
scan line has it's own perspective
center
Cameras and Sensors Types

 Cameras  Pushbroom Sensors

 Frame Camera
 Generic
 Digital Camera
 SPOT
 Video Camera (Videography)
 Non-Metric Camera (35m, Medium and Large
 IRS-1C
Format Cameras)
 Orbital
 Rational Polynomial Coefficients (RPC)
 Mixed Sensor
 NITF RPC
 QuickBird RPC  Leica ADS 40
 IKonos RPC  Orbital coefficients
 Cartosat RPC  WV/QB
 Wv/wv2 RPC
 Geoeye/orbiview
 Alos RPC
 Aster/Spot
 Indian High res RPC
 Geoeye RPC  Alosprism
 EROS etc.
Image Formats

 LPS supports the following raster DLLs (Dynamically Loadable

Library):
ADS40 GIF PCIDSK
AVIRIS GIS PNG
All Raster Extensions GRID RAW
BIL Generic Binary RPF
BIP HDF SDE Raster
BSQ HYDICE SOCET SET
BMP Hyperion SPOT DIMAP
DTED IMAGINE IMG Surfer Grid
ENVI Intergraph (cit) TARGA
ENVISAT Intergraph (cot) TIFF
EOS HDR JPEG & JP2 UAI
ER Mapper LAN Virtual Mosaic
EROS A-1 MrSID Virtual Stack
FIT NITF VITec

 These formats do not need to be imported

Image Formats

IMAGINE Raster Importers

ADRG EOS HDF NLAPS

ADRI ER Mapper PCIDSK
ADS40 ERS PCX
ANT (ERDAS 7.x) Generic Binary
ARCGEN GeoTIFF PNG
ASCII Raster GIS (ERDAS 7.x) RADARSAT
ASRP GRASS RPF
AVHRR GRID SDE Raster
CADRG (Compressed ADRG) HDF
SDTS
CIB (Controlled Image Base) HYDICE
DAEDALUS IRS SeaWiFS
USGS DEM JPEG / JP2 SPOT (GeoSpot)
DGN (Intergraph IGDS) LAN (ERDAS 7.x) Sun Raster
DIG (ERDAS 7.x) Landsat-7 TARGA
DOQ TIFF
MSS Landsat
DOQ(JPEG) TIGER
DTED MrSID TM Landsat
ENVI NITF USRP

IMAGINE (.IMG)
 Getting images in

Select single or multiple images

A row will appear in the Cell Array for each image

 Pyramid Layers

 Larger images: Display faster

 Additional layers to the .img file

 External to .img file

 Additional file (.rrd)

 Internal to .img file

 File size increases about 1/3
Pyramid Layers

Original
Image

Image 4K X 4K
Resampled

2K X 2K

1K X 1K
512 X 512 IMAGINE Selects the Pyramid
128 X 128 Layer which will display fastest
64 X 64 in the viewer
Inside the Sensor

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

Why look inside?

 To build a relationship between IMAGE SPACE and OBJECT

SPACE both need co-ordinate systems

IMAG
SPA E
CE
Z Axis

s
xi
A
Y

OB
0,0
JEC
XA TS
xis PAC
E
Image Space Co-ordinate System

 Image Space Co-ordinate Systems require knowledge of the

internal geometry of the sensor

 Provided in a Camera Calibration Certificate

 Parameters defining this geometry are:

 Focal length
 Radial Lens Distortion
 Principal Point
 Fiducial Measurement (Interior Orientation)
Internal Geometry in LPS

Show and edit frame properties

icon

Input and edit Sensor Geometry

and other information
Focal Length

Image/Focal Plane

Focal Length Cross

Section

Optical Axis
 Focal Length Calibration

 Measured in Laboratory and provided in the Camera Calibration

Certificate for each camera

 For example:
 Most Frame Cameras f  152 mm (6 in)
Radial Lens Distortion

Distortion
Optical Axis

C Distance

C
ion Lens distortion can be
Camera Lens r t
t o defined as a function of
Dis
ing radial distance from the
eas
r lens center
Inc
Lens Distortion Calibration

 This distortion causes displacement of an image point from its

'true' position

 Caused by 'wear and tear' of a lens and inaccurate optics

Radius (mm) 20 40 60
Semi diagonal (1) 0.000 0.001 0.000 2 3
Semi diagonal (2) 0.001 0.000 0.000
Semi diagonal (3) 0.003 0.002 0.001
Semi diagonal (4) -0.001 -0.003 -0.001 1 4

MEAN 0.001 0.000 0.000

Block Tool
Principal Point

Exposure Station/Perspective Center

Virtual Image Plane Actual Image Plane

Optical Axis PP
(Perpendicular
to Image Plane)

Principal Point

Optical Axis
Principal Point Offset

But with lens

distortion PP
is offset
Fiducial Measurement

Intersection of opposite fiducials

approximates the Principal Point
Principal Point Calibration

 On Calibration Report, PP is usually defined as:

 “Calibrated Principal Point (point of symmetry)”

 Given as:
 Xo, Yo
Fiducial Mark Measurement (Interior Orientation)

 Necessary with the Camera Model

 From the Camera body, marks are transferred to film

Fiducials measured by user

#1
Image X (Pixels) Image Y (Pixels)
1 124.554 -2200.641
2 2191.293 -101.293
3 103.467 -122.598
4 2203.250 -2180.098
Fiducial Calibration

 Marks are also measured in laboratory

1 3
These pixel
4 coordinates can then
2 be converted into this
coordinate system

Film X(mm) Film Y(mm) Image X (Pixels)Image Y (Pixels)

1 -103.947 -103.952 1 124.554 -2200.641
2 103.945 103.924 2 2191.293 -101.293
3 -103.937 103.927 3 103.467 -122.598
4 103.958 -103.952 4 2203.250 -2180.098

 Define an image or photo-coordinate system within each image

of the block
Fiducial Orientation

 Relationship between image coordinate system and image

orientation in viewer
3 2 1 3

Y
X

X
1 4 4 2
4 1 2 4
X

X
Y
Y

2 3 3 1
Digital, video or non-metric cameras

 When using digital, video or non-metric cameras, interior

orientation involves:
 Defining the x and y pixel size of the camera CCD
 Defining the scanning resolution used to digitize the film obtained from a
camera not using a CCD
Image Space Co-ordinate System

 I.O. Parameters define the origin of the Image Space Co-ordinate

system
Fiducial measurement
Radial distortion
Z Principal point offset
B Y
yb Focal length
xb
X
ya
Any point on the image
xa A can now be defined by
this system
Internal Geometry of Sensor Models

 When using satellite sensors (SPOT, IRS-1C and generic

pushbroom) the process is referred to as internal sensor
modeling

 Many internal parameters are read by the Block Tool from the
image header:
 Focal length
 Principal point Xo, Yo
 Pixel Size
 Sensor Columns

 User does not need to define these

The Sensor in Space

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

 XyZ Omeg
a
Sensor Attitude/Orientation
Phi
1 2 3 Kapp
a

GPS - IMU
Inertial Motion Unit

For triangulation to take place

the software needs to be given,
calculate or estimate the
location and orientation of the
sensor in space
Defining the sensor location

 Simply use Object Space Co-ordinate System

X,Y,Z
 Camera or satellite
sensor
 For each Exposure
Station
is
Y Ax
Z Axis

X Axis
Defining the sensor orientation

 Sensor platforms are rarely completely level

yaw, pitch and roll

There is always some tilt, tip and swing
Defining the sensor orientation

 For each exposure station, platform orientation can be defined

as rotation around the X, Y and Z axis of the object space co-
ordinate system

Kappa () These three rotational

parameters can

Z-axis
describe any orientation
of the platform

- axis X-a
Y xis
Omega
()
Phi ()
Six Elements of Exterior Orientation

X,Y,Z ,,  , X,Y,Z ,,  ,

Z Axis

x is
YA
These 6 parameters define
location and orientation of
X Ax
is each exposure station/
perspective center
EO Parameters in LPS

X Y Z   

3 Options for Status Setting

value is adjusted by software
value is never adjusted by software
value is totally derived by software
EO of Pushbroom Sensors

 Pushbroom data:
 LPS automatically reads the header information to determine the external
sensor model information
 Side incidence angle and ground resolution information

Ground Resolution

Incidence Angle
Pushbroom Perspective Centers

 Data is collected along a scan line, each scan line has it's own
perspective center

 The position and orientation of the sensor is different for each

scan line

 A polynomial function is used to model each perspective center

and rotation angles

 The larger the polynomial order, the greater the number of GCPs
required to solve the triangulation solution
So far...
Image Space
Coordinate System

Camera Information
Exterior Orientation f Y

X
Object Space IMAG
SPA E
Coordinate System CE
Z Axis

s
xi
A
Y

OB
JEC
0,0 TS
XA
xis
PAC
E
Take Control

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

Building the Relationship

 A mathematical relationship between Image Space and Object

Space relies on the measurement of Control Points

x,y Mathematics can build a

relationship between these
values & these values
X,Y,Z #3
Object Left Right
X,Y,Z #2 GCP #1 X , Y , Z x , y1
1 1 1 1 x , y1
1

GCP #2 X,Y,Z x, y
2 2 2 2 2 x, y
2 2
#1 X,Y,Z X,Y,Z x, y
GCP #3 3 3 3 3 3 x, y
3 3
Control in LPS

Start point measurement tool

Enter, Edit and Measure Ground

Control Points
Object and Image Space Measurements

Providing Control to your Block can be separated into two parts:

1. Object Space Coordinates

 Projection, Datum and Spheroid

2. Image Space Measurements of the GCPs

 Image Coordinate System, File Coordinate System
Entering Ground Control Point Coordinates

 Coordinates of GCP in Object Space can be gathered various

techniques:
 Using GPS
 From Maps
 From other imagery

 Should have X, Y and Z values

What makes a good GCP?

 Clearly recognizable on the ground and on the imagery

 Static, will not change through time

 Overlap areas of imagery

 Numerous, Data Redundancy

Measuring GCPs on Images

 Identify locations of GCPs on imagery

 Ground points must be visible
 Same GCP may appear on numerous images

 Measurement taken in each individual Image's Coordinate

System

Left
Right
How to Measure GCPs

 The LPS Point Measurement tool

allows for the display of 2 images
contained within a block

 Overview window, main view and

detail window permit accurate
identification and measurement
of each point
Types of Control Points

 A FULL control point has X, Y and Z coordinates

 A HORIZONTAL control has X and Y coordinates

 A VERTICAL control has a Z coordinate

 A NONE specification is used for TIE points. Image positions

have been measured but actual X, Y and Z coordinates are
unknown
Tie points

 A TIE point is the image coordinate position of an object

appearing on 2 or more images

 The X, Y and Z coordinates of a tie point are unknown and are

determined by LPS during the aerial triangulation procedure
Automatic Tie Point Collection

 Digital image matching automatically identify and measure tie

points

Window used to calculate correlation between gray levels of pixels

TIE point added if pixels are matched

 3 overlapping photos: 1500 tie points

Check Points

 Used to independently verify the

quality of an aerial triangulation
solution
 X, Y, Z coordinates not used in
triangulation
 Image coordinates used to predict
ground coordinates
 Predicted points compared to
original X,Y and Z
 Difference provides an indication of
accuracy of the triangulation
In Summary...

 Once we have coordinates of points, we can begin to build a

mathematical relationship between IMAGE SPACE and OBJECT
SPACE
a f Y
b
d cI
MAG X
SPA E
CE

(XA,YA,ZA)  (xa,ya,fa)
Z Axis

s
xi

B
A

D
Y

C
OB
JEC (XB,YB,ZB)  (xb,yb,fb)
0,0 TS
XA PAC
xis
E
Building the Relationship

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

Building Relationships

 Block Triangulation
 Definition
 Block Bundle Adjustment
 Collinearity Condition
 Least Squares Adjustment
 Measurement Quality
 Residuals
 Convergence value

 Checking the Results

Block Triangulation

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

Block Triangulation: Definitions

 Defining the mathematical relationship between the images, the

camera or sensor model and the ground (IMAGE SPACE-
OBJECT SPACE)

 With relationship defined accurate information concerning the

earth's surface can be extracted

 Known as Aerial Triangulation when using:

 Frame camera, digital camera, videography and non-metric camera
Block Triangulation Estimates...

 Block triangulation will SIMULTANEOUSLY estimate:

1. Six parameters of Exterior Orientation

X ,Y, Z ,,  ,
2. X, Y and Z coordinates of TIE points
X ,Y, Z ,,  ,

3. Interior orientation parameters

(Self Calibrating Bundle Adjustment)

X,Y,Z
Block Bundle Adjustment

 The Block Bundle Adjustment processes information from an

entire block of imagery in one simultaneous solution

 Bundle block adjustment uses the collinearity condition as the

basis for formulating the relationship between
image space and ground space
Collinearity Condition

A line extending
from the exposure station
to the image point
and to the ground point
must be linear

This condition is used to

mathematically relate image and
ground measurements to the EO
parameters
Least Squares Adjustment

 Collinearity Equations can be solved using

the Least Squares Adjustment approach

 This technique adjusts your measurements and estimates the

unknowns by minimizing and spreading errors through out the
block

 Statistical techniques automatically identify, distribute, and

remove error
Least Squares: How it works?
? ? We measure:
Image Coordinates of GCPs
and Tie points

Ground Coordinates of
GCPs and Tie points

We MUST also provide an

indication of the QUALITY of
each of the measurements
Measurement Quality

Can be thought of as the

POSSIBLE ERROR in your
measurements
For the ground
Quality estimates are inputted measurements
into the Block Tool
Measurement Quality

For the ground

measurements:
We define a standard
deviation which
indicates the quality
of the measurement

Eg. SD of 5m: GCP is within 5m of its true

location (X,Y,Z)
Measurement Quality

Perspective Centers also need

estimates of quality (X,Y,Z).
Also entered as standard
deviation values

For Image
measurements:
We define a standard
deviation which
indicates the quality
of the digitizing

Eg. SD of 1 pixel: Point is within 1 pixel of its true location

Quality Estimates: What they do

Adjustment process will

move your points until the
“best solution” is found
Inputted
Standard Deviations
Image (Measures of Quality)

The points fluctuate only

within the limits of the
specified standard deviation
Adjustment takes
values
places in the X, Y
AND Z direction
Ground
What is the “Best Solution”?

 Based on the residuals of the adjustment

Predicted Location
Measured
Location

This is only ONE residual

Least squares approach
tries to minimize
measurement residuals
Residual across an entire block...
(Distance between measured
location and the predicted
location)
Block Residuals

 Block of eight images…

 Image & ground measurements

 Least Squares Adjustment

calculates new points based on
distributing and minimizing
residuals throughout the ENTIRE
block

 There are RESIDUALS for:

 Each ground point
 Each image point
 Each perspective center
Spreading Error

 The adjustment distributes error throughout the block trying to

minimize all the residuals

 You can control the adjustment process with the quality

estimates
Predicted Location
Standard
Deviation

Measured
Location
When to stop?

 Least Squares is an iterative process. So, how does the process

know when to stop adjusting the points and recalculating
residuals?

 We define a threshold value in meters

 Convergence Value

 Once the process reaches convergence it stops

 What is convergence?...
 The Convergence Value

 After each iteration residuals

calculated for each measurement

Iteration If every difference between

#1 #2 these values is less
0.054 0.044
than the Convergence
0.049 0.024 value, the iterations
0.386 0.436 will STOP
0.195 0.087
0.054 0.021
0.054 0.111
0.674 0.434
0.912 0.432 Indicates that the
0.282 0.153 triangulation has met
0.513 0.321 the required accuracy
0.589 0.654
0.766 0.543
Inputting Quality Estimates

 Estimates are inputted into the Block Tool

 What values should be used for the Quality Estimates?

 GPS error
 Map reading error
 Digitizing error
Self-Calibrating Bundle Adjustment

 Cameras not designed for photogrammetry:

 Non-metric camera, digital camera or videography

 Cameras with outdated or no calibration reports

 Will estimate the interior orientation parameters

of the camera/sensor
 Focal length
 Principal Point in the x direction
 Principal Point in the y direction
SCBA: How it works

 More GCPs an advantage (6 per overlap)

SCBA will estimate the Interior

Geometry of the sensor

Focal length

Principal Point
Checking the Relationship

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

Checking the Relationship

 LPS automatically generates a report of the mathematics used

in the block bundle adjustment

 This report should be examined whether convergence is

reached or not

 It will indicate where problems in your block might exist

 OR it might indicate how to improve a block which reached

convergence
Art or Science?

 Knowing how to interpret this report is vital to creating accurate

ortho-images

 Only with experience can the benefit from these statistics be

fully appreciated

 We will define the significant statistics and provide a guide for

‘bug hunting’
Triangulation Summary

 Tells you whether convergence was reached or not

 Total Image Unit-Weight RMSE

 Global precision indicator describing the quality of the ENTIRE
SOLUTION
 Should be less than pixel size of original imagery
 Smaller value indicates residuals have been minimized within your block

Check:
 Remainder of Summary
 Complete Triangulation Report
Triangulation Summary

 Control Point RMSE

 Indicate the amount of change between the original GCP their newly
estimated locations on the ground and on the images
 Large values: a problem Review:
 Inputted GCP coordinates
 Image measurements
 Check Point RMSE
 Indicate the amount of change between the original Check Point and their
newly estimated locations on the ground and images
 Large values: a problem Review:
 Inputted point coordinates
 Image measurements
Triangulation Report

 More detailed

 An example:
Triangulation Report

In summary:

 The most important values to examine are the RESIDUALS

 If any are relatively high, then they might need attention

 GCP and check point residuals (rX, rY, rZ)

Review:
 Specific coordinates

 Image Points (Vx, Vy)

Review:
 Specific Image Measurements (Digitizing Errors)
Creating and Using Orthoimages

Copyright © 2005 Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging, LLC

Orthorectification: Recap

Produces planimetrically and geometrically correct data

ORTHORECTIFICATION removes the effect of:

 Sensor Orientation Block Triangulation/ Single

Frame Resection
 Internal Sensor Errors

 Relief Displacement (Scale Variation) D.E.M

 How is it done?

LPS takes each DEM pixel and finds the equivalent position in the
image

A brightness value is calculated based on the surrounding pixels

This brightness value, the elevation and the exterior orientation

information are used to calculate the equivalent location on the
ortho image
 Orthorectification Process
1. Pixel in the DEM (Height)
2

3 2. Parameters of External Orientation

3. In the image, a brightness value is

determined based on the resampling
of surrounding pixels

1 The orthorectified image is

constructed by resampling the
original image pixels into their
new positions

4 4. Height, Exterior orientation information

and Brightness Value used to calculate
equivalent location in the ortho image
Calibration vs Resampling

 Ortho Calibration does not create a new image

 It creates an orthorectified mathematical model that associates

the original image with the earth's surface

 Each pixel then has orthorectified X and Y coordinates

Ortho Calibration

 The result of calibrating imagery is to create a calibration node

in the image header

 This node contains the mathematical model used to transform

original pixels locations into orthorectified locations ‘on the fly’

Calibration Node
Transformation
matrix x x x
y y y
z z z

DEM
Raw data
Ortho Calibration: Benefits

 Saves disk space, since no additional image is created

 With poor DEMs ground features are not distorted significantly

if calibration is used