DATA ANALYSIS &

MEASUREMENT

By Sudershna Lal,
Asst. Prof
BVDU College of
Nursing, Navi Mumbai
MEASUREMENT & DATA PREPARATION
 Measurement
 Types of Scales
 Scaling Technique
 Data Processing
 Data Analysis & Interpretation
 Displaying of Data
MEASUREMENT :

 Measurement is defined as the assignment of

numbers to characteristics of objects or events
according to rules. the definition of measurement
clearly states that the researcher should know that
the measurement scale measures the
characteristics of the objects or event and not the
objects or events.
 MEASUREMENT :
 Researchers normally use four level of
measurement scales. they are:

 a)Nominal scale
 b) Ordinal scale
 c) Interval scale
 d) Ratio Scale
MEASUREMENT SCALES (TYPE OF SCALE)
 Nominal scale • A set of data is said to be nominal
if the values / observations belonging to it can be
assigned a code in the form of a number where the
numbers are simply labels. You can count but not
order or measure nominal data. Nominal Scale is
the crudest among all measurement scales but it is
also the simplest scale. In this scale the different
scores on a measurement simply indicate different
categories. The nominal scale does not express
any values or relationships between variables.
 For example, labelling men as ‘1’ and women as ‘2’
which is the most common way of labelling gender for
data recording purpose does not mean women are
‘twice something or other’ than men. Nor it suggests
that men are somehow ‘better’ than women. • The
nominal scale is often referred to as a categorical
scale. The assigned numbers have no arithmetic
properties and act only as labels.The only statistical
operation that can be performed on nominal scales is a
frequency count.
 Ordinal Scales:
 Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along
the continuum of the characteristic being scaled.
In this scale, the items are classified according to
whether they have more or less of a
characteristic.
ORDINAL SCALES:

 . For example, you may wish to ask theTV

viewers to rank theTV channels according to their
preference and the responses may look like this
as given below: TV Channel Viewers preferences
 Doordarshan-1
 Star plus-2
 NDTV News -3
 Aaj Tak -4
ORDINAL SCALES:

 The main characteristic of the ordinal scale is that the

categories have a logical or ordered relationship. This type of
scale permits the measurement of degrees of difference, (that
is,‘more’ or ‘less’) but not the specific amount of differences
(that is, how much ‘more’ or less’). This scale is very common
in marketing, satisfaction and attitudinal research.Another
example is that a fast food home delivery shop may wish to
ask its customers: Using ordinal scale data, we can perform
statistical analysis like Median and Mode, but not the Mean.
How would you rate the service of our staff?
 (1) Excellent • (2) Very Good • (3) Good • (4) Poor • (5) Worst
 Ratio Scales Ratio Scale is the highest level of
measurement scales.This has the properties of an interval
scale together with a fixed (absolute) zero point.The
absolute zero point allows us to construct a meaningful
ratio. Examples of ratio scales include weights, lengths and
times. In the marketing research, most counts are ratio
scales. For example, the number of customers of a bank’s
ATM in the last three months is a ratio scale.This is because
you can compare this with previous three months. Ratio
scales permit the researcher to compare both differences in
scores and relative magnitude of scores
MEASUREMENT SCALES :
 Interval Scale is a scale in which the numbers are used to rank
attributes such that numerically equal distances on the scale represent
equal distance in the characteristic being measured.An interval scale
contains all the information of an ordinal scale, but it also allow one to
compare the difference/distance between attributes The interval scales
allow the calculation of averages like Mean, Median and Mode and
dispersion like Range and Standard Deviation. An interval scale is a
scale of measurement where the distance between any two adjacent
units of measurement (or 'intervals') is the same but the zero point is
arbitrary. Scores on an interval scale can be added and subtracted but
cannot be meaningfully multiplied or divided. Food supplied is:
Indicate your score on the concerned blank and circle the appropriate
number on each line. Fresh 1 2 3 4 5 Tastes good 1 2 3 4 5 Value for
money 1 2 3 4 5 Attractive packaging 1 2 3 4 5 Prompt time delivery 1
2345
SCALING TECHNIQUE :
 In comparative scaling, the respondent is asked
to compare one object with another. For example,
the researcher can ask the respondents whether
they prefer brand A or brand B of a detergent. On
the other hand, in non-comparative scaling
respondents need only evaluate a single
object.Their evaluation is independent of the
other object which the researcher is studying.
 Respondents using a non-comparative scale
employ whatever rating standard seems
appropriate to them.
 Non-comparative techniques consist of
continuous and itemized rating scales.
 Comparative scaling techniques consist of:

 a) Paired comparison scaling

 b) Rank order scaling
 c) Constant sum scaling and
 d) Q-sort
 a) Paired comparison scaling as its name
indicates involves presentation of two objects and
asking the respondents to select one according to
some criteria.The data are obtained using ordinal
scale.. As the number of items increases, the
number of comparisons increases geometrically.
If the number of comparisons is too large, the
respondents may become fatigued and no longer
be able to carefully discriminate .
 b) Rank order scaling This is another type of
comparative scaling technique in which respondents
are presented with several items simultaneously and
asked to rank them in the order of priority.This is an
ordinal scale that describes the favoured and
unfavoured objects, but does not reveal the distance
between the objects. Like paired comparison, the
rank order scale, is also comparative in nature.The
resultant data in rank order is ordinal data.
 In this scale, the respondents are asked to allocate a
constant sum of units such as points, rupees, or chips
among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some
criterion.
 For example, you may wish to determine how
important the attributes of price, fragrance, packaging,
cleaning power, and lather of a detergent are to
consumers. Respondents might be asked to divide a
constant sum to indicate the relative importance of the
attributes using the following format.The advantage of
this technique is saving time. The respondents may
allocate more or fewer points than those specified.
 Q-Sort Scale: This is a comparative scale that uses a rank
order procedure to sort objects based on similarity with
respect to some criterion.The important characteristic of
this methodology is that it is more important to make
comparisons among different responses of a respondent
than the responses between different
respondents.Therefore, it is a comparative method of
scaling rather than an absolute rating scale. In this method
the respondent is given statements in a large number for
describing the characteristics of a product or a large
number of brands of a product.
SCALING TECHNIQUE :
 Continuous Rating Scales It is very simple and
highly useful. In continuous rating scale, the
respondent’s rate the objects by placing a mark at
the appropriate position on a continuous line that
runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to
the other.
 Examples of continuous rating scale are given
below: Question: How would you rate the TV
advertisement as a guide for buying? Scale Type
 Itemised Rating Scales Itemised rating scale is a
scale having numbers or brief descriptions
associated with each category. The categories are
ordered in terms of scale position and the
respondents are required to select one of the
limited number of categories that best describes
the product, brand, company, or product attribute
being rated. Itemised rating scales are widely
used in marketing research.
A) LIKERT SCALE
 These scales are sometimes referred to as summated scales. It
requires a respondent to indicate a degree of agreement or
disagreement with each of a series of statements related to the
attitude object.
 For Example:
 The service at a retail store is very important to me: ____ Strongly
Agree ____ Agree ____ Neither Agree nor Disagree ____ Disagree
____ Strongly Disagree
 To analyze a Likert Scale, each response category is assigned a
numerical value.These examples could be assigned values such as
Strongly Agree=1, through Strongly Disagree=5 or the scoring
could be reversed., or a –2 through +2 system could be used. They
can be analyzed on an item-by-item basis, or they can be summed
to form a single score for each individual.
Advantages :
 1. It is relatively easy to construct and administer.

2. Instructions that accompany the scale are easily

understood; hence it can be used for mail surveys
and interviews with children.
Disadvantages :
 1. It takes a longer time to complete as compared to

Semantic Differential Scales, etc.

 2. Care needs to be taken when using Likert Scales

in cross cultural research, as there may be cultural

variations in willingness to express disagreement.
 Example Semantic Differential Scale This is a seven
point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar
labels (such as good and bad, complex and simple) that
have semantic meaning. The Semantic Differential scale
is used for a variety of purposes. It can be used to find
whether a respondent has a positive or negative attitude
towards an object. It has been widely used in comparing
brands, products and company images. It has also been
used to develop advertising and promotion strategies and
in a new product development study.
PROCESSING OF DATA DATA PROCESSIING:
 Data continues to be in raw form, unless and until
they are processed and analyzed. Processing is a
statistical method by which the collected data is so
organized the further analysis and interpretation of
data become easy. It is an intermediary stage
between the collection of data and their analysis and
interpretation. Processing stages There are four
important stages in the processing of data.They are;
1. Editing 2. Coding 3. Classification 4. tabulation
EDITING:
 As soon as the researcher receives the data, he
should screen it for accuracy. Editing is the
process of examining the data collected through
various methods to detect errors and omissions
and correct them for further analysis. Though
editing, it is ensured that the collected data are
accurate,consistent with other facts gathered,
uniformly entered and well-arranged so that
further analysis is made easier
EDITING
 Practical guidelines for editing While editing care has to be taken to see
that the data are as accurate and complete as possible.
 The following points are to be noted;

1.The editor should familiarize with the copy of instructions given to the
interviewers.
2.The original entry, if found incorrect, should not be destroyed or erased. On
the other hand, it should be crossed out in such a manner that it is still
eligible.
3.Any, modification to the original entry by the editor must be specifically
indicated.
4.All completed schedules must bear signature of the editor and the date.
5. Incorrect answer to the questions can be corrected only if the editor is
absolutely sure of the answer, otherwise leave it as such.
6. Inconsistent, incomplete or missing answers should not be used.
7. See that all numerical answers are converted to same units
CODING:
 Coding is the process by which r response categories
are summarized by numerals or other symbols to carry
out subsequent operations of data analysis.This
process of assigning numerals or symbols to the
responses is called coding. It facilitates efficient
analysis of the collected data and helps in reducing
several replies to a small number of classes which
contain the critical information required for analysis.
In general it reduces the huge amount of information
collected in to a form that is amenable to analysis
STEPS IN CODING:
 1. Study the answers carefully.
 2. Develop a coding frame by listing the answers and by aligning
codes to each of them.
 3. Prepare a coding manual with the detail of variable names,
codes and instructions.
 4. If the coding manual has already been prepared before the
collection of the data, make the required additions for the open
ended and partially coded questions.
 Coding rules
 1. Give each respondent a code number for identification.
 2. Provide code number for each question.
 3.All responses including ‘don’t know’,‘no opinion’. Etc is to be
coded.
CLASSIFICATION:
 Classification is the process of reducing large
mass of data in to homogeneous groups for
meaningful analysis. It converts data from
complex to understandable and unintelligible to
intelligible forms. It divides data in to different
groups or classes according to their similarities
and dissimilarities. When the data are classified,
they give summary of whole information.
OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION:

1.To organize data in to concise, logical and

intelligible form.
2.To take the similarities and dissimilarities s
between various classes clear.
3.To facilitate comparison between various classes of
data.
4.To help the researcher in understanding the
significance of various classes of data.
5.To facilitate analysis and formulate generalizations
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION:
A. Classification according to external characteristics In this
classification, data may be classified either on geographical basis
or periodical basis. Classification on geographical basis In this
type of classification, the data that are collected from different
places are placed in different classes. Classification on periodical
basis (chronological classification) In this type of classification,
the data belonging to a particular time or period are put under
one class. This type of classification is based on period.
B. Classification according to internal characteristics Data may
be classified either according to attributes or according to the
magnitude of variables Classification according to Attributes In
this type data are classified on the basis of some attributes an
characteristics
 Simple Classification: If the classification is
based on one particular attribute only it is called
simple classification.
 Eg; classification on the basis of sex.
 Manifold Classification : If the classification is
based on more than one or several attributes it is
called manifold or multiple classifications. in this
data are classified in several groups.
C. Classification according variables Here the data
are classified to some characteristics that can be
measured. Data are classified on the basis of
quantitative characteristics such as age, height;
weight etc.
quantitative variables are grouped in to two
a) Discrete variable If the variables can take only
exact value, it is called discrete variable.
b) b) Continuous variable The variables that can take
any numerical value within a specified range are
TABULATION:
 Tabulation is the next step to classification. It is an orderly
arrangement of data in rows and columns. It is defined as the
“measurement of data in columns and rows”. Data presented in
tabular form is much easier to read and understand than the data
presented in the text the main purpose of tabulation is to prepare the
data for final analysis. It is a stage between classification of data
and final analysis.
Objectives of Tabulation:
 1.To clarify the purpose of enquiry

 2.To make the significance of data clear.

 3.To express the data in least possible space.

 4.To enable comparative study.

 5.To eliminate unnecessary data

 6.To help in further analysis of the data

TABULATION :

Types of Tables
 Simple Table

 Complex table

(a) One- way table

(b) Two- way table
(c)Three-way table
(d) Manifold tables
SIMPLE TABLE:

COMPLEX TABLE
ONE- WAY TABLE :
TWO- WAY TABLE :
THREE-WAY TABLE
MANIFOLD TABLES
ANALYSIS OF DATA :
 Analysis of data is considered to be highly skilled
and technical job which should be carried
out .Only by the researcher himself or under his
close supervision. Analysis of data means critical
examination of the data for studying the
characteristics of the object under study and for
determining the patterns of relationship among
the variables relating to it’s using both
quantitative and qualitative methods.
STEPS IN ANALYSIS :
 Different steps in research analysis consist of the following.
 1.The first step involves construction of statistical
distributions and calculation of simple measures like
averages, percentages, etc.
 2.The second step is to compare two or more distributions
or two or more subgroups within a distribution.
 3.Third step is to study the nature of relationships among
variables.
 4. Next step is to find out the factors which affect the
relationship between a set of variables
 5.Testing the validity of inferences drawn from sample
survey by using parametric tests of significance
TYPES OF ANALYSIS:
TYPES OF ANALYSIS :
 Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive statistics are
used to describe the basic features of the data in a
study. They provide simple summaries about the
sample and the measures. Descriptive statistics is
the discipline of quantitatively describing the
main features of a collection of data or the
quantitative description itself. In such analysis
there are univariate analysis, bivariate analysis
and multivariate analysis
UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS
 Univariate analysis involves describing the distribution of a single variable,
including its central tendency (including the mean, median, and mode) and
dispersion (including the range and quartiles of the data-set, and measures of
spread such as the variance and standard deviation).The shape of the
distribution may also be described via indices such as skewness and kurtosis.
Characteristics of a variable's distribution may also be depicted in graphical or
tabular format, including histograms and stem-and-leaf display.
 Bivariate analysis Bivariate analysis is one of the simplest forms of the
quantitative (statistical) analysis. It involves the analysis of two variables (often
denoted as X, Y), for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship
between them. Common forms of bivariate analysis involve creating a
percentage Table or a scatter plot graph and computing a simple correlation
coefficient
 Multivariate analysis. • In multivariate analysis multiple relations between
multiple variables are examined simultaneously. Multivariate analysis (MVA) is
based on the statistical principle of multivariate statistics, which involves
observation and analysis of more than one statistical outcome variable at a time.
In design and analysis, the technique is used to perform trade studies across
multiple dimensions while taking into account the effects of all variables on the
responses of interest .
 Inferential Analysis :Inferential statistics is
concerned with making predictions or inferences
about a population from observations and analyses
of a sample.That is, we can take the results of an
analysis using a sample and can generalize it to the
larger population that the sample represents.
 There are two areas of statistical inferences
 (a) statistical estimation and (b) the testing of
hypothesis
 TYPES OF INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS

HYPOTHESIS TESTING ESTIMATION

METHOD TESTING METHOD
STEPS IN ANALYSIS
 Different steps in research analysis consist of the following.

 1.The first step involves construction of statistical distributions

and calculation of simple measures like averages, percentages, etc.
 2.The second step is to compare two or more distributions or two
or more subgroups within a distribution.
 3.Third step is to study the nature of relationships among
variables.
 4. Next step is to find out the factors which affect the relationship
between a set of variables
 5.Testing the validity of inferences drawn from sample survey by
using parametric tests of significance
DISPLAYING OF DATA
Graphs and Diagrams: In research, the data
collected may be of complex nature. Diagrams
and graphs is one of the methods which
simplifies the complexity of quantitative data and
make them easily intelligible.
They present dry and uninteresting statistical facts
in the shape of attracting and appealing pictures
DISPLAYING OF DATA: GRAPHS
1. Line Graphs :A line graph displays information
in a series of data points that each represents an
individual measurement or piece of data.The
series of points are then connected by a line to
show a visual trend in data over a period of
time.The line is connected through each piece
chronologically.
DISPLAYING OF DATA : BAR CHARTS
 The bar graph is a common type of graph which
consists of parallel bars or rectangles with lengths
that are equal to the quantities that occur in a
given data set.The bars can be presented
vertically or horizontally to show the contrast and
record information. Bar graphs are used for
plotting discontinuous (discrete) data. Discrete
data contains discrete values and are not
continuous.
DISPLAYING OF DATA : CIRCLE CHARTS OR PIE DIAGRAM

 A pie graph is a circle divided into sections which

each display the size of a relative piece of
information. Each section of the graph comes
together to form a whole. In a pie graph, the
length of each sector is proportional to the
percentage it represents. Pie graphs work
particularly well when each slice of the pie
represents 25 to 50 percent of the given data.
DISPLAYING OF DATA : A HISTOGRAM
 A histogram is a graphical representation that organizes a
group of data points into user-specified ranges. It is similar
in appearance to a bar graph.The histogram condenses a
data series into an easily interpreted visual by taking many
data points and grouping them into logical ranges or bins.
• histogram is a bar graph-like representation of data that
buckets a range of outcomes into columns along the x-
axis. • The y-axis represents the number count or
percentage of occurrences in the data for each column and
can be used to visualize data distributions.
DISPLAYING OF DATA : PICTOGRAMS
 A pictogram, also called a pictogram or pictograph, is
an ideogram that conveys its meaning through its
pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Pictographs
are often used in writing and graphic systems in which
the characters are to a considerable extent pictorial in
appearance. Pictography is a form of writing which
uses representational, pictorial drawings. It is a basis
of cuneiform and, to some extent, hieroglyphic
writing, which also uses drawings as phonetic letters
or determinative rhymes.
INTERPRETATION MEANING :
 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
inferences from the collected facts after an analytical
and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for
broader meaning of research findings. The task of
interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the
effort to establish continuity in research through
linking the results of a given study with those of
another, and (ii) the establishment of some
explanatory concepts. “In one sense, interpretation is
concerned with relationships within the collected
data,partially overlapping analysis.
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION :
 The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill
and dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one
learns through practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek
the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation.
 The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:

(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he

has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the
underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity
that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In
fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be done and
concepts be formulated.
(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be
considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it
may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under
consideration.
(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to
consult someone having insight into the study and who is frank
and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors
in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in
correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of
research results.
(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only
after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to
avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while
interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear
to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate