Radiation Protection Awarness

Radiation Protection Awareness
Ahmed Zahw ,Radiation Protection Specialist.

Safety is Prevention
 “It is estimated that 97% of the money spent for medical
care is directed toward treatment of an illness, injury or
disability. Only 3% is spent on prevention.”
Course Objectives:
 Accident Prevention.
 Discuss the Effects of Direct and Indirect Radiation Exposure.
 Discuss the Effects of Acute and Chronic Radiation Exposure.
 Introduce Terms Used to Describe the Biological Effects of
Radiation Exposure.
 Provide Radiation Safety Skills for Personnel Who May Come
Into Contact With Radiation Hazards.
Content:  Biological Mechanisms of Injury
 Radiation Safety  Radiation Detection Instruments
 Radiation Management Program  ALARA Philosophy
 Biological Effects Of Radiation Exposure?  Anticipated Radiation Exposures
 (RPO) as per FANR  Radiation Protection Standards
 Radiation History  Radioactive Waste
 Radiation Awareness  Waste Treatment and Disposal
 Natural and Man-Made Radiation Sources  Brief on industrial practical
radiation safety
 Open discussion.
Basis of Radiation Management Program

 Radiation Safety Results in Accident Reduction.
 Elimination of Workplace Injuries & Illnesses Where Possible.
 Reduction of Workplace Injuries & Illnesses Where Possible.
 Development of Efficient Radiation Safety Techniques.
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Basis of Radiation Management
Program
 Safety Standards Require:
 Training Be Conducted
 Personal Protective Equipment Be Provided
 Workers Be Properly Protected Against Injury
 A “Radiation Protection Program” Be Established
 Radiation Hazards and Precautions Be Explained
 Job Radiation Hazards Be Assessed and Controlled
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You Control Your Safety

YOU ARE THE KEY
 More Than Anyone Else in the Workplace You Are in the Best Position to
Control Your Safety on the Job.
 Company Policies, Safety Regulations, Built-in Safeguards Statistically
Can Never Equal the Level of Safety You Can Provide Yourself.
 Workplace Safety Starts With You.
Purpose of The Program

 Reasons To Maintain An Effective Program:
 Safety
 Peace of mind
 Reduced liability
 Increased productivity
 Reduced lost man-hours
 Improved employee morale
 Reduced or eliminated fines
 Improved health of employees
 Reduced injury and illness rates
 Lower workers’ compensation costs
 Because it’s the right thing to do!!!!!!
What Regulations Apply?
 The Hazards in Your Workplace Will Determine Which
Regulations You Will Need to Address!
 For Specifically Radiation Safety the Following Apply :
Applicable Regulations
• Safety and Health Standards
• Industrial Safety
• Ionizing Radiation
• Notices, Instructions, and Reports
• Standards for Protection Against Radiation
Applicable Regulations
MUST include: SHOULD include:
 List of the approved equipment.  Processes & requirements for the selection
 Documentation and record retention of equipment at the time of purchase.
requirements.  Requirements for personnel education &
 List of measures for protecting patients competency assessment.
and personnel from unnecessary exposure  Quality assurance and improvement
to ionizing radiation. program.
 Procedures for handling and disposing of  Frequency of and processes for testing of
body fluids and tissue that may be protective devices.
radioactive.  Requirements for patient education.
 Requirements for using radiation  Processes for sterilization when required.
monitoring devices (e.g., dosimeters).
Regulatory Standard , The General Duty

Employers Must:
 Furnish a place of employment free of recognized hazards that are causing or are
likely to cause death or serious physical harm to employees.
 Employers must comply with occupational safety and health standards.
Employers Must Ensure:
1. Safe Place of work.
2. Safe tools & equipment.
3. Safe working procedures.
4. Training, supervision & hiring competent employees.
Program Requirements , All Employers Must:

 Control Workplace Exposures.
 Review Job Specific Hazards.
 Safeguard Radiation Sources.
 Implement Corrective Actions.
 Conduct Hazard Assessments.
 Conduct Accident Investigations.
 Provide Training to All Required Employees.
 Control Workplace Hazards Using PPE As a Last Resort.
Importance of Radiation Safety Program

A Good Program Will Help:
 Improve Quality.
 Mitigate Absenteeism / High-Turnover.
 Reduce Injury and Illness Rates.
 Maintain a Healthier Work Force.
 Workers Feel Good About Their Work.
 Reduce Workers’ Compensation Costs.
 Elevate SAFETY to a Higher Level of Awareness.
Radiation Awareness
Basic Structure
Radiation of the
Protection Awareness
Atom
 All matter is made up of atoms.
 Atoms are the smallest component of an element,
comprised of three particles:
• Protons.
• Neutrons.
• Electrons.
 Protons and neutrons are in the central nucleus.
 Electrons orbit the nucleus.
Ionizing vs. Non-Ionizing Radiations

Ionizing Radiation Non-Ionizing Radiation
• A radiation that has sufficient • A radiation that is not as
energy to remove electrons energetic as ionizing
from atoms or molecules as it radiation and cannot remove
passes through matter. electrons from atoms or
• Examples: x-rays, gamma molecules.
rays, beta particles, and alpha • Examples: light, lasers, heat,
particles. microwaves, and radar.
Ionizing radiation – Why Worry?
Ionizing radiation health risks:
 Acute effects – high levels of radiation produce effects

such as blood chemistry changes, nausea, fatigue,
various skin effects, cataracts, and death
 Delayed effects – at some lower level of radiation, can
increase risk of some cancers
What about at typical environmental and occupational dose levels? No risk? What are the implications?
Radiation is a weak carcinogen compared to other materials (beryllium, asbestos, tobacco smoke…)
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What is Radiation?
 As either particles or rays

 Two kinds: ionizing and non-ionizing
The Search for Stability
 An atom is stable based on it’s proton to neutron ratio.
 If there are too many or too few neutrons or protons, the atom will
give off excess energy as :
 Rays
 Particles
 This process is called radioactive decay.

What is Radioactivity?
 Radioactivity is: a collection of unstable atoms that undergo
spontaneous transformation that result in new elements.
 An atom with an unstable nucleus will “decay” until it
becomes a stable atom, emitting radiation as it decays
 The “amount” of radioactivity (called activity) is given by
the number of nuclear decays that occur per unit time
(decays per minute).
Radiation Vs. Radioactivity
 Radiation: energy in the form of particles or electromagnetic
waves.
 Radioactivity: spontaneous emission of radiation from the
nucleus of an unstable atom.
Types of Radiation
 Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that has sufficient energy to dislodge orbital

electrons.
 Examples of ionizing radiation: Alpha Particles, Beta Particles, Gamma Rays, and
X-Rays.
 Non-Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that does not have sufficient energy to dislodge
orbital electrons. This is less dangerous than ionizing radiation, it is the radiation
that have an electric or magnetic or mechanical origin or heat or light ... Etc.
 Examples of non-ionizing radiation: microwaves, ultraviolet light, lasers, radio
waves, infrared light, and radar.
Radiation Origins
 Ionizing radiation can be generated by electronic means (x-ray units) or

radioactive materials.
 When electronic-product radiation is produced, the source is turned on and
off like a light switch. Once the unit is off, the radiation exposure is over.
The x-ray unit does not continue to radiate or become radioactive.
 With radioactive materials, there is a little more involved. The source is
always on until it decays away.
What is Radiation?
 Radiation: Radiation is energy travelling through space.
 Sunshine is one of the most familiar forms of radiation.
 It delivers energy, light, heat and suntans.
 While enjoying and depending on it, we control our exposure to it.
 Beyond ultraviolet radiation from the sun, there are higher-energy kinds of radiation
which are used in medicine and which we all get in low doses from space, from the air,
and from the earth and rocks.
 Collectively we can refer to these kinds of radiation as Ionizing Radiation.
 It can cause damage to matter, particularly living tissue.
 At high levels it is therefore dangerous, so it is necessary to control our exposure.
What is Radiation? Cont.
 While we cannot feel this radiation, it is readily detected and measured, and
exposure can easily be monitored.
 Living things have evolved in an environment which has significant levels of
ionizing radiation.
 Furthermore, many people owe their lives and health to such radiation produced
artificially.
 Medical and dental X-rays distinguish hidden problems.
 Other kinds of ionizing radiation are used to diagnose illnesses, and some people
are treated with radiation to cure disease.
Radioactive Elements
 A radionuclide: (radioactive nuclide, radioisotope or radioactive isotope) is an
atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable.
Unstable Nucleus:
 Has excess energy.
 Wants to go to “ground state.”
 Becomes stable by emitting ionizing radiation.
 Ionization means that:

when the radiation deposits its energy into another atom, the energy is sufficient to
cause ionization of the atom – (the ejection of one of the orbital electrons).
Radiation
X-rays Roentgen’s Discovery
 In 1895 German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen
accidentally discovered a new form of energy.
 He did not know what kind of rays were

responsible for this phenomenon, so he called
them X-rays.
 Roentgen produced first x-ray image - his own

hand.
William Roentgen  His work sparked feverish research, especially in

German Physicist - Germany.
1895
Discovery of Radioactivity
 Becquerel put different elements in the sun and

then placed them on photographic plates in dark
drawers to study phosphorescence.
 One day in 1896 there was no sun and he put

Uranium on a photographic plate in a dark drawer.
 The next day the plate was cloudy! Energy was

Henri Becquerel coming from Uranium itself!
French Physicist
Discovery of Radium and Polonium
 Marie and Pierre Curie spent years

purifying radioactive elements.
 They discovered new radioactive
elements Radium and Polonium in 1898.
 With her husband Pierre, discovered and
created the term “radioactive”
 First woman to win two Nobel Prizes.
Marie and Pierre Curie

of Poland and France.
Three types particle radiation
 Rutherford found three different types of

particles were emitted.
 He called them:
 alpha(),
 beta() and
 gamma(γ) particles
Ernest Rutherford
New Zealand
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Ionizing radiation
 Occurs from the addition or removal of electrons from neutral atoms.
 Four main types of ionizing radiation
alpha, beta, gamma and neutrons

  Alpha
  Beta
  Gamma (X-ray)
 n Neutron
Alpha Particles  Large mass
 The alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a

helium atom.
 Consists of 2 protons & 2 neutrons
 An alpha particle weighs more than one beta

particle by 7000 times.
 Electrical charge of +2
 An alpha particle moves a short distance because

of the huge mass.
 Range in air 1 to 2 inches

Alpha shielding
 A sheet of paper
 Outer layer of skin
Biological Hazard:
 Alpha radiation is not an external hazard, because it can be stopped so easily.
 If inhaled or swallowed, the alphas emitted from an alpha emitter, can deposit
large amount of energy in a small area of body tissue.
Beta Particle ß
 Small mass.
 Electrical charge of -1
 Emitted from nucleus.
 Beta particles moving at nearly the speed of light and can be

moved through 13 mm of wood.
 Range in air about 10 feet.

Beta Shielding: ß
 Beta has a limited penetrating ability because of its negative charge.
 Most beta particles can be shielded by plastic, glass, metal foil, or safety
glasses.
Biological Hazard
 If ingested or inhaled, a beta-emitter can be an internal hazard.
 Externally, beta particles are potentially hazardous to the eyes and skin.
Gamma and X-Rays
 Gamma rays and X-rays are essentially the same, except for where they
originate.
 Gamma rays originate from the nucleus, and X-rays originate outside the
nucleus of an atom.
 These rays have no mass or no charge and are very penetrating.
 These rays are the same as light (electromagnetic radiation), only much
more energetic.
 Considered more of an external hazard than internal.
 Both rays are great for imaging patients.
:Gamma and X-Rays
 An electromagnetic wave or photon, which has no elect. charge.
 Great penetrating power.
 Range in air easily several hundred feet.
Gamma and X-Ray Shielding:
 Concrete
 Lead
 Steel
 Gamma rays able to penetrate many types of material, but some of the
material can absorb gamma rays, for example, an iron slice with thickness of
1.3 cm can absorb 50% of the million elec. volt gamma rays. This is equivalent
to the absorbance capacity of 10 cm of water, or 0.65 cm of lead.
Radioactive decay & the Half Life
 When an atom’s nucleus gives off excess energy, the process is

called radioactive decay.
 Radioactive half-life is the time it takes half the radioactive

atoms present to decay.
Radioactive decay & the Half Life
 Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process in which nucleons are emitted

from or transformed within the nucleus, resulting in a change in the identity
of the nucleus, and usually accompanied by the emission of one or more
types of radiation from the nucleus and/or atom.
 Half-life is the time required for half of the atoms of a radioactive material to
decay to another nuclear form.
 Different materials (radionuclides) have different half-lives. Depending on

the material, their half-lives vary from fractions of a second to billions of
years.
Radiation Units
 There are two systems of units used in the measurement of

radioactivity and radiation dose.
 The older units (Curie, rad and rem) are commonly used in
U.S. regulatory language.
 The SI units - International System of Units (Becquerel, Gray
and Sievert) are commonly used internationally.
Radiation Measurement
Radioactivity refers to the amount of ionizing radiation released by a

material.
 Whether it emits alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays, or
neutrons, a quantity of radioactive material is expressed in terms of
its radioactivity (or simply its activity), which represents how many
atoms in the material decay in a given time period.
 The units of measure for radioactivity are the curie (Ci) and
becquerel (Bq).
Radiation Units
How do we measure or quantify radiation? Here are a few units of measure that
are used (often interchangeably) in radiation protection:
Exposure Absorbed Dose Dose Equivalent

• A measure of ionization • A measure of energy • Dose equivalent is needed
produced in air by X or deposition per unit because the biological effect
gamma radiation. mass irradiated. from a given absorbed dose is
• Highly specific in that • Considers all dependent upon the type of
the unit specifies the radiations imparting radiation producing the
matter being exposed energy to all types of absorbed dose.
and radiation producing matter. • Unit: rem
the ionizations. • Unit: rad • 1 rem = 1000 mrem
• Unit: roentgen (R) • 1 rad = 1000 mrad • SI Units: sievert (Sv)
• 1 R = 1000 mR • SI Units: gray (Gy) • 1 Sv = 100 rem
• 1 Gy = 100 rad
2. Exposure describes the amount of radiation traveling through the air.

 A measure of ionization produced in air by X or Gama radiation.
 Many radiation monitors measure exposure.
 The units for exposure are the roentgen (R)
 1 R = 1000mR
Roentgen (R)
 unit for measuring exposure
 Defined for effect in air only
 Applies only to gamma and x-rays
 Does not relate radiation to the effect on the
human body.
1 R = 1000 milliroentgen (mR)

3. Absorbed dose describes the amount of radiation absorbed by an

object or person (that is, the amount of energy that radioactive
sources deposit in materials through which they pass).
 A measure of energy deposition per unit mass irradiated.
 The units for absorbed dose are the radiation absorbed dose (rad)
and gray (Gy).
 1 rad = 1000 mrad.
 SI unit Gray (GY)
 1 GY = 100 rad.
3. Dose equivalent (or effective dose) combines the amount of radiation absorbed and
the medical effects of that type of radiation.
4. Dose equivalent is needed because biological effect from a given absorbed dose is
dependent upon the type of radiation producing the absorbed dose.
5. For beta and gamma radiation, the dose equivalent is the same as the absorbed dose.
By contrast, the dose equivalent is larger than the absorbed dose for alpha and
neutron radiation, because these types of radiation are more damaging to the human
body.
6. Units for dose equivalent are the roentgen equivalent man (rem) and sievert (Sv), and
biological dose equivalents are commonly measured in 1/1000th of a rem (known as a
millirem or mrem).
7. 1 rem = 1000 mrem
8. SI unit sievert (Sv)
9. 1 Sv = 100 rem
Roentgen Absorbed Dose (rad)
 Unit for measuring the absorbed dose in any material
 Applies to all types of radiation
 Does not take into account differing effects on the human
body
 1 rad = 1000 millirad (mrad)
Natural Background
and
Man-Made
Radiation Sources
Radioactive Sources
Cosmic Rays
Solar Radiation
Nuclear X-Rays
Medicine

 
Consumer Radon
Products
Each
Other
Radioactive
Waste
Terrestrial Food &
Radiation Nuclear
Drink
Power
Radiation Sources
 Radiation is part of nature.
 All living creatures, from the beginning of time, have been,
and are still being, exposed to radiation. Annual Exposure
620 millrem/yr.
 Sources of radiation can be divided into two categories:
Natural Background Radiation:
• Cosmic Radiation
• Terrestrial Radiation
• Internal Radiation
Man-Made Radiation
Natural Background Radiation
Cosmic Radiation:
 The earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded
by radiation from outer space, similar to a steady shower of
rain.
 Charged particles from the sun and stars interact with the
earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field to produce a shower of
radiation.
 The amount of cosmic radiation varies in different parts of the
world due to differences in elevation and to the effects of the
earth’s magnetic field.
2. Terrestrial Radiation:
 Radioactive material is also found throughout nature in soil, water, and vegetation.
 Important radioactive elements include uranium and thorium and their radioactive
decay products which have been present since the earth was formed billions of
years ago.
 Some radioactive material is ingested with food and water.
 Radon gas, a radioactive decay product of uranium is inhaled.
 The amount of terrestrial radiation varies in different parts of the world due to
different concentrations of uranium and thorium in soil.
3. Internal Radiation:
 People are exposed to radiation from radioactive material inside their bodies.
 Besides radon, the most important internal radioactive element is naturally
occurring potassium-40 but uranium and thorium are also present.
 The amount of radiation from potassium-40 does not vary much from one person to
another.
 However, exposure from radon varies significantly from place to place depending on
the amount of uranium in the soil.
 On average, in the United States radon contributes 55% of all radiation exposure
from natural and man-made sources.
 Another 11% comes from the other radioactive materials inside the body.
Man-Made Radiation Sources
 Examples of man-made sources of radiation to members of the public:
 Natural gas.
 Gas Lantern mantles
 Medical diagnosis.
 Building materials.
 Nuclear power plants.
 Coal power plants.
 Tobacco.
 Radioactive materials in sandstone, concrete, brick, natural stone, gypsum &

granite contain naturally-occurring radioactive elements like radium, uranium,
and thorium.
 These naturally-occurring elements can break down or decay into the
radioactive gas radon.
Radioactive Consumer Products
 Tobacco (tobacco products contains small amounts of radioactive materials,
smoking makes radon exposure more likely to cause cancer.)
 Smoke detectors (contain a small amount of americium-241, a radioactive
material.)
 Welding rods (thoriated tungsten - thorium is radioactive)
 Television (low levels of X-rays)
 Watches & other luminescent products (tritium or radium)
 Gas lantern mantles
 Fiestaware [ceramic glazed dinnerware (Ur-235)]
 Jewelry (the uranium glaze used in some)
Luminous Watches
Fiesta Ware Nuclear

Medicine
Contains Triatomic hydrogen H-3

or radium that glows in the dark
Glazed with dye

containing uranium X-rays and fluoroscopes are
used to look inside the body
Smoke Detectors
What’s Radiation is Used for?
• Science
– Carbon dating to determine age.
– Instruments to measure density.
– Power satellites.
• Medicine
– X-rays and nuclear medicine.
– Diagnose and treat illness.
• Industry
– Smoke detectors.
– Kill bacteria and preserve food.
Putting Radiation in Perspective!
Everyone on Earth is being exposed to radiation!
The US average receives approximately 360 mrem
of radiation dose per year.
Background radiation dose is affected by altitude,
soil type and other factors. There is a wide
variation of natural backgrounds in the world.
Some places have annual background radiation
levels greater than the US dose limits for  Did you know some of the foods
radiation workers…with no excess cancer you eat contain naturally
occurring radioactive material?
mortality!
 Bananas contain low
quantities of Potassium-40.
Background Radiation
Your exposure to radiation

can never be zero
because background radiation

is always present
Routes Of Entry
 Inhalation:
A Dose That Is Absorbed Through the Lungs Into the
Bloodstream.
 Absorption:
A Dose That Is Absorbed Through the Skin Or Eyes.
 Ingestion:
 A Dose That Is Absorbed Throug the Gastro-Intestinal Track Through Eating,
Drinking or Smoking.
 Injection:
A Dose That Is Absorbed Via Broken Glass, Knives, compressed Air Etc.
Contamination Avoidance
 Common Sense Rules: What To Do and When?
 Wash Hands and Remove PPE Before:
 Eating  Protect All Potential Routes of Entry.
 Smoking  Never Reuse Disposable Gloves.
 Drinking  Be Aware of Cross Contamination.
 Handling Contact Lenses  Inspect Personal Protective Equipment
 Applying Cosmetics or Lip Balm Before Use.
Emergency Assistance
 What To Do and When?
 Know what to do before it happens!  Notify co-workers.

 Consult with your supervisor.  Shut off machinery.
 Don’t increase you’re dose.  Don’t take unnecessary risks.
 Sound the alarm for help.  Stay with the injured person if possible.
 Evacuate if necessary  Wait for emergency responders to arrive.
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Biological Mechanisms of Injury
 Radiation may…
 Deposit Energy in Body
 Cause DNA Damage
 Create Ionizations in Body
 Which may lead to biological damage.
Exposure: measure of the ionisation produced in air by gamma rays.
Dose: measure of energy deposited by radiation in a material

(measure of the ionisation produced in air by gamma rays)
or of the relative biological damage produced by that amount of energy
given the nature of the radiation.
 Biological effects depend on dose and time.
 Mechanism of damage: radiation causes atoms and molecules to become ionised

or excited. It can result in damage to molecules which regulate vital cell
processes.
 Interaction of radiation with matter: the relative amount of damage to the cell
and tissue of a person exposed to radiation depends on the energy deposited.
• Review the three possibilities of what happens when radiation strikes DNA.
At doses below the level where significant acute effects occur,
transformation is worse than cell death and can lead to altered cell
metabolism and function and to cancer development.
• Cell death is typically not a problem (our cells are dying and being
replaced all the time). However, when the rate of cell death exceeds repair
abilities, acute effects can occur.
• Acute effects generally occur in cells that are the most sensitive to
radiation—those cells that are rapidly dividing (blood-forming cells,
gastrointestinal [GI] cells, those lining the gut, etc.). That’s why when
people are exposed to large amounts of radiation, they usually have GI
symptoms, nausea, vomiting, etc.
Factors affecting Response to radiation
1. Total dose.
2. Dose rate.
3. Radiation quality.
4. Stage of development at the time of exposure.
Most and Least Radiosensitive Cells
Mature red blood cells
Muscle cells
Low Sensitivity Ganglion cells
Mature connective tissues
Gastric mucosa
Mucous membranes
High Sensitivity Esophageal epithelium
Urinary bladder epithelium
Primitive blood cells
Intestinal epithelium
Very High Spermatogonia
Sensitivity Ovarian follicular cells
Lymphocytes
Medical Treatment
• External Decontamination
– Mild cleaning solution applied to intact skin
 Betadine, Soap, Rad-Con for hands
– Never use harsh abrasive or steel wool
• Internal Decontamination
– Treatment which enhances excretion of
radionuclides.
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Radioactive Material at Workplace
 Activities should be licensed by the State Law.
 Radiation Safety Committee has responsibility to review, approve,
and oversee activities.
 Radiation Protection Officer (RPO) runs program.
 Employer is required to:
Train individuals that use sources of radiation.
Train non-radiation workers that work in the vicinity of radiation
sources.
Monitor and control radiation exposures.
Maintain signs, labels, postings.
Manage & properly dispose of radioactive waste.
Radiation Dose & Dose Equivalent
 It is a scale for equating relative hazards of various types of ionization in terms of equivalent risk.
 Damage in tissue measured in rem.
 Human dose is measured in rem or millirem.
 1 rem = 1000 mrem.
 1 rem poses the same risk for any type of ionizing radiation.
 External radiation exposure measured by dosimetry.
 Internal radiation exposure measured using bioassay sample analysis.
 rem = Q * rad. Q: risk of biological injury.
 The rad is a unit of absorbed radiation dose, defined as 1 rad = 0.01 Gy (Gray) = 0.01 J/kg.
 Sievert (Sv): is a derived unit of ionizing radiation dose in the International System of Units (SI) and is
a measure of the health effect of low levels of ionizing radiation on the human body. 1 Sv = 100
rem.
Annual Radiation Exposure Limits
Occupationally Exposed Worker:

rem mrem
Whole body 5 5000
Minor 0.5 500
Pregnant Worker 0.5* 500*
*9 months
General Public: 100 mrem/year or 2mrem/hour

Why Establish Occupational Exposure Limits?
• We want to eliminate ability of non-stochastic effects (Acute) to occur: Example:
Skin Reddening.
• We want to reduce the probability of the occurrence of stochastic effects

(Chronic) to same level as other occupations
– Example: Leukemia.
• Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE), TEDE = Internal + External

• Assume Internal Contribution Zero, Unless Ingestion, Absorption or Inhalation
Suspected
Limit = 5 rem / yr.
Acute Exposure
 Large doses received in a short time period
Accidents
Nuclear war
Cancer therapy
 Short term effects (acute radiation syndrome 150 to 350 rad whole body)
Anorexia ,Nausea ,Fatigue, Vomiting ,Epilation, Diarrhea
Hemorrhage&Mortality
Acute Effects of Whole-Body Exposure
Absorbed dose (Rad) Effect
10,000 Death in a few hours
1,200 Death within days
600 Death within weeks
450 LD 50/30
100 Probable recovery
50 No observable effect
25 Blood changes definite
5 1st blood change obs
• The dose of radiation expected to cause death to 50 % of an exposed population

within 30 days (Lethal Dose 50/30).
Chronic Exposure
 Doses received over long periods Background radiation exposure
Occupational radiation exposure
 50 rem acute vs 50 rem chronic acute: no time for cell repair
chronic: time for cell repair
 Long term effects
Increased risk of cancer, genetic defects
0.07% per rem lifetime exposure
Normal risk: 25% (cancer incidence)
How do you detect radiation?
• A variety of instruments are available for detecting & measuring radiation.
• Examples of radiation survey meters: This probe is used for the detection of
alpha radiation.
• The most common type of radiation detector is a Geiger-Mueller (GM) tube,
also called a Geiger counter.
What does a radiation survey measure?
• Survey meters are portable radiation detection and measurement
instruments used to check personnel, equipment and facilities for radioactive
contamination.
• Also measures external or ambient ionizing radiation fields (to evaluate the
direct exposure hazard).
Devices used to detect nuclear radiation?
• Geiger Mueller (GM) Detectors with Pancake Probes.
• Alpha Radiation Survey Meter.
• Dose Rate Meter.
• Newer Radiation Detection Devices.
• Personal Dosimeters.
What is a pocket dosimeter?

• A quartz fiber dosimeter, sometimes called a self indicating pocket
dosimeter(SIPD) or self reading pocket dosimeter (SRPD), is a type of
radiation dosimeter, a pen-like device that measures the cumulative dose of
ionizing radiation received by the device.
What is a radiation badge?
• The film badge dosimeter, or film badge, is a personal dosimeter used for
monitoring cumulative radiation dose due to ionizing radiation.
• The badge consists of two parts: photographic film & a holder.
What is a radiation dosimeter?

• Is a device that measures exposure to ionizing radiation.
• It has two main uses:
1. for human radiation protection
2. for measurement of dose in both medical & industrial processes.
Personnel Monitoring Methods
(Dosimetry)
Monitoring Required Monitoring Method
Whole Body TLD or OSL Badge
Extremity Finger Ring TLD
Internal Contamination Urinalysis or Bioassay
Ring Thyroid
Whole Body Badge Bioassay
Badge
• Thermo Luminescent Dosimeter,
• Optically Stimulated Luminescence
Personal Dosimeters
 What is a personal dosimeter?
 A small radiation monitoring device worn by persons entering environments that
may contain radiation .
 Who should wear a personal  Personal monitoring – Why??

dosimeter?
 To ensure dose limits are not exceeded 20
 Workers in ( emergency / mSv /y for whole body.
nonemergency) environments that may  To check that doses are ALARA
contain radiation.
 Provides documentation in case of ionization
 Workers in industrial environments incident / emergency.
where radiation is used .
Personal Dosimeters
 Personnel Dosimetry - FYI  General Rules for Use of Dosimetry
 Dosimetry does not protect you from  Wear your own badge.
radiation.
 Wear your whole body (WB) badge
 Dosimetry is not a warning device (i.e. it whenever working with radiation sources.
will not alarm, beep or change color).
 Notify the RSO immediately when a badge is
 Dosimetry documents the radiation dose an lost.
individual receives when working with
radiation sources.  Wear ring badges under gloves.
 It is ILLEGAL to intentionally expose an  Store badges in designated areas at the end of

individual’s dosimeter. each day of work.
Personal Dosimeters
 Types of personal monitor:
 Chest badge for whole body monitoring:
 has two discs of lithium fluoride.
 Finger monitor
 Approximately 20mg of lithium fluoride.
 Where are personal dosimeters usually worn?

 Flat badges are usually worn on the upper body,
at the chest level, but can be worn on the forearm .
 Ring shaped badges can be worn on the finger.

Personnel Monitoring
 External exposure results from radiation that comes from
radioactive material outside of the body.
 A “personnel dosimeter” is a device used to measure
external dose.
 Internal dose is radiation that comes from radioactive
material within the body.
 The whole body counter, chest counter, and bioassay
sampling are methods for measuring internal dose.
Dose Equivalent to an Embryo/fetus
 Occupational exposure to the fetus of a declared pregnant
woman shall not exceed 500 millirem during the 9 month
pregnancy. Declare pregnancy as soon as possible.
Declared Pregnant Workers
 Purely VOLUNTARY!
 To be apart of the program, you must DECLARE your pregnancy in
writing to your supervisor and provide the estimated date of
conception.
 The RSO must be notified immediately upon declaration.
 The declared pregnant worker may be provided with a dosimeter
that will be worn at the waist level. If lead is worn, the “fetal
badge” shall always be worn under the lead.
91
One Last Thought to Remember!
Radiation protection is not just the responsibility of

management, the Radiation Safety Committee, the Radiation
Safety Officer or co-workers,
it is all our responsibility.

Radiation Exposure Protection
Personnel Protection
 General:
 It is Supervisor responsibility to Ensure You are Instructed in The Specific
Procedures Related to Your Job.
 Safety-Related Work Practices Must Be Employed to Prevent Over

Exposure to Either Direct or Indirect Radiation, When Work Is Performed
Near or on Radioactive Materials.
 The Specific Safety-Related Work Practices Must Be Consistent With the

Nature and Extent of the Associated Radiation Hazards.
 Personal Attire:
 Articles of Jewelry and Clothing May Not Be Worn If They Might Become
Contaminated With Radioactive Materials.
 Protective Clothing and Equipment:
 Appropriate for the Particular Hazard(s).

 Maintained in Good Condition.
 Properly Stored When Not in Use.
 Kept Clean, Fully Functional, and Sanitary.
 Used In Accordance With Established Protocols.
 Personal PPE and Clothing Must Be Pre-Approved.
 Housekeeping Duties:
 Where Radioactive Material Is Present, Employees Must Perform

Housekeeping Duties in Accordance With Established Protocols.
 Adequate Safeguards (Such As Shielding, Ventilation, Detection

Equipment Etc., Must Be Used During Housekeeping as Required.
 Radioactive Waste Materials Must be Disposed of In Accordance with

Established Protocols.
 Use of Equipment:
 Visual Inspection:
 Equipment Used in The Conduct of Work Must Be Visually Inspected Before Use on
Any Shift for Serviceability. If There Is a Defect or Evidence of Damage They Must
Be Removed From Service.
 Operation and Use:
 You Must Be Qualified. Equipment Must Be Used in Accordance With Established
Protocols. Unapproved Use Could Result in Injury or Contamination of Areas
Outside of the Immediate Work Area.
 Repair and Out-Of-Service.
 Equipment Found to Be Unserviceable Must Be Removed From Service and
Reported in Accordance With Procedures Established With Your Work Area.
Personnel Protection DANGER
XXXX
DANGER
XXXX
DANGER
XXXX
XXXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXX
 Barriers and Signage:
 Barriers and Signage Should Be Strategically Placed in the Work Area to

Control Access and Ensure That Only Trained and Qualified Personnel Enter
Hazardous Areas.
 The Arrangement of Such Equipment Will Vary Depending on the Layout of

the Work Area and the Specific Needs of the Job.
 Signage: Some Tips To Consider
 Warning Signs Should Be: DANGER

 Standardized Where Possible.
 Distinctive From Other Signage.
 Posted at the Appropriate Height. RADIOACTIVE
 Clearly Warn Personnel of the Hazards. MATERIALS
 Posted at All Entry Ways to the Work Area.
 State An Action To Be Taken Where Needed.
 Signage: Some Tips To Consider
 Warning Signs Should Be:

 Standardized Where Possible.
 Distinctive From Other Types of Protection.
 Placed So That Materials Are Not Reachable.
 Positioned Usually at Least 3 Feet From the Hazard.
 If Barriers/Tape Are Not Sufficient, Post Attendants.
 Protective Guards:
 General Precautions
DANGER
 When Normally Enclosed Sources Are Exposed for Use,
They Must Be Guarded to Protect Unqualified Persons
From Contact With the Material.
RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL IN USE
Perception Of A Successful
Protection Program
1. Detailed Exposure Control Procedures

2. Extensive Employee Training Programs
3. Periodic Reinforcement Of Training
4. Sufficient Discipline Regarding Implementation
Working Safely with Radiation
 Training Is the Key to Success in Managing Safety in the Work
Environment.
 Attitude Is Also a Key Factor in Maintaining a Safe Workplace.
 Safety is, and Always Will Be a Team Effort,
 Safety Starts With Each Individual Employee and Concludes

With Everyone Leaving at the End of the Day to Rejoin Their
Families.
 The Federal Authority for Nuclear Regulation (FANR) is the
national regulatory authority of the United Arab Emirates for
the licensing and oversight of nuclear related activities in the
UAE.
Radiation Protection Officer (RPO) as per
FANR
An individual who…
 Meets the regulatory training/experience requirements
 Is identified on a license that authorizes the use of radioactive

material and/or radiation machines.
 RPO is a person technically competent in Radiation Protection

matters relevant for a given type of Regulated Activity with
Regulated Material who is designated by the Licensee to oversee
the application of relevant requirements established in this
regulation.
105
FANR
 RPO’s have common core information on protection and safety as

related to their field of practice and need to have specific personal
attributes, such as communication skills, leadership and analytical
skills, human–machine interface skills and multitask management
skills.
 The RPO shall also have knowledge about applicable regulations.
106
 Radiation protection officers or other specialist technicians should generally have
a scientific or technical diploma.
 Examples:
 A radiation protection officer should be concerned with safe operation in fixed
industrial radiography or with mobile devices on site.
 The radiation protection officer will be required to supervise, for example:
 The setting up of barriers around controlled areas
 The explanation of local rules,
 The provision of personal dosimetry services, dose rate monitoring,
 The transport and storage of sources,
 The implementation of emergency response plans, including those for misplaced or
lost sources.
FANR
 In an industry using gauging systems, a radiation protection officer should supervise
radiation protection measures relating to gauge operation, maintenance, leak testing,
and exchange, storage of sources and the explanation of local rules.
FANR
 In a medical facility, a radiation protection officer should have
responsibilities associated with radiation safety, including the protection of
workers and patients and ensuring the appropriate condition of the equipment
used.
 A medical facility may have a number of radiation protection officers, each
with a specific responsibility include the explanation of local rules, such as
for diagnostic radiology, radiotherapy and nuclear medicine.
 They may also be responsible for operations involving radioactive waste
management in the facility.
Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)
as per FANR
 In research laboratories, a radiation protection officer should be
responsible for the supervision of the safe handling of sealed and unsealed
radiation sources and radiation generating equipment.
 Duties may include the explanation of local rules and working procedures to
staff, dose monitoring and the implementation of emergency procedures in
the event of an accident such as a spill of radioactive material.
 The importance of a safety culture should be stressed to laboratory workers.
FANR
 The educational level of a radiation protection officer will be dependent
on the skills and technical requirements of the job as well as on
radiation protection needs.
 Education to a secondary level should be the minimum requirement for a
radiation protection officer for level gauges, for instance. However, for
some applications, a tertiary educational level may be considered
appropriate.
Radiation Protection Officer (RPO) as per FANR
 Oversees the radiation safety program.
 Monitors compliance with Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations.
 Assists in creating and enforcing policies and procedures.
 Determines methods for monitoring & recording occupational exposure.
 Determines which individuals require monitoring devices.
 Identifies radiation safety problems.
 Stops unsafe practices.
 Initiates, recommends, provides & verifies corrective actions.
 Is present before & during radionuclide use.
 Controls and maintains the radionuclide surveillance program.
112
Responsibilities of the RPO
 RPO must establish
 Authority
 Duties
 Responsibilities
 RPO must be provided sufficient…

 Authority
 Organizational freedom
 Time
 Resources
 Management privilege
 Serve as the primary contact with the regulatory agency.
 Ensure surveys/leak tests are performed and documented
 Maintain required records.
 Establish & oversee operating, safety and emergency
procedures.
 Handle monitoring of occupationally-exposed personnel.
 Assume control and initiate corrective actions
in emergency or unsafe conditions
 Investigate incidents
 Implement corrective actions
 Perform inventories
 Ensure proper labeling, transport, use,
and disposal
of radioactive material
 Identify radiation safety problems.
 Have a thorough knowledge of management
policies and administrative procedures.
 Ensure personnel are complying with rules and OSE
procedures.
 Reviewing ALARA program “As Low As Reasonably
Achievable.”
 Reviewing the audit of the radiation safety program.
Are you
Let’s take
A
Radiation Protection Program:
 The organizational structure pertaining to radiation protection & security of
radioactive sources;
 The medical surveillance of workers;
 The personnel monitoring;
 The area monitoring;
 The operational limit;
 The classification of working area;
 The normal working procedures;
 The procedures under abnormal situations;
 The procedures for transportations of a package containing sealed source;
 The training of a worker; and
 The procedures for keeping and maintenance of records/documents.
119
Contamination
 Definition: Radioactive material where it shouldn’t be.
e.g. floors, bench tops, hands
 All radioisotopes have contamination potential even if they do not
have external exposure potential.
 The goal is to prevent contamination from getting on to your skin
and/or inside your body.
 You are NOT radioactive if you receive an external exposure from
radioactive material.
Contamination
• Contamination is the presence of a radioactive material in any
place where it is not desired, and especially in any place where its
presence could be harmful.
• Radioactive contamination may be loose or fixed.

• Loose contamination may become airborne, providing an inhalation
route of exposure to the individual, or it may fixed, i.e., embedded in
some material or object.
Contamination
 Radioactive Contamination is:
• Radioactive material where it shouldn’t be. e.g. floors, bench tops, hands.
• Fixed vs. Removable Contamination.
• All radioisotopes have contamination potential even if they do not have
external exposure potential.
• The goal is to prevent contamination from getting on to your skin and/or

inside your body.
 How Contamination Differs From Exposure:
• A person exposed to radiation is not necessarily contaminated with
radioactive material.
Spill Response
• Notify the people in area that a spill has occurred
• Report incident to the DMPRS
• Prevent the spread of contamination. Cover the spill with absorbent
material and prevent access to the area by unauthorized personnel
• Clean Up using disposable gloves
• Survey area with a GM survey instrument.
Radiation Detection Devices
 Instruments that can identify the presence of radiation:
• In the environment
• On the surface of people (external contamination)
• Inside people (internal contamination)
• Received by people as exposure
 There are many types of radiation detection devices.
• No single device can detect all kinds of radiation.
• No one device is useful in all situations.
What can radiation devices detect and measure?
• Specific types of radiation: (e.g., alpha, beta,
gamma, neutron).
• Specific levels (ranges) of radiation energy (kV).
• "Counts" per unit time (minute or second)
• Accumulated dose (units of gray or rad)
• Current dose rate (units of gray or rad per unit
time)
Radiation Detection Instruments
• Instruments can detect very small levels or
quantities of radioactivity.
• A swipe of an area can be made and counted
in a liquid scintillation counter or held near
the probe of a (Geiger-Mueller) GM meter to Liquid Scintillation Counter
determine directly if there is any removable
contamination.
• A Geiger counter alone can locate
contamination, but it cannot tell you if it is
removable or not.
Geiger Counter
Geiger Mueller Detector
• Geiger counters are portable devices that detect
and measure radioactivity.
• Can be used to detect beta, gamma and X-ray
radiation.
• Geiger-Muller tube is filled with an inert gas that
will conduct electricity when ionized.
• “The tube amplifies this conduction by a cascade
effect and outputs a current pulse, which is
displayed by a needle or audible clicks.”
Thermoluminescence Dose meter - TLD
• The primary form of personal
radiation monitoring dosimeter.
• Thermo luminescence is the
emission of light by heat.
• TLD measures ionizing radiation
exposure by measuring the
amount of visible light emitted
from a crystal in the detector
when the crystal is heated.
Guidelines for Use of your TLD
• Never share your badges or wear another person’s badges.
• Do not intentionally expose badges to radiation.
• No matter how curious you are, do not wear your badges when
you receive a medical x-ray or other medical radiation
treatment.
• Your badges are intended to document occupational dose, not

medical dose.
Guidelines for storage of your TLD
• Store your badges in a safe place, at work rather than at home.
• Be sure to store badges away from sources of radiation.
• If you store your badges clipped to your lab coat, make sure
that your lab coat (or any other lab coat near it) is not
contaminated.
• Store your badges away from sources of heat (some badges
such as TLDs show some sensitivity to environmental factors
like heat).
• For example, badges left in cars over hot summer weekends
may give false exposure readings.
Annual Radiation Dose Limits
General Public vs. Occupational
Established by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
• General Public Limit - 100 mrem
• Occupational Limit - 2,000 mrem
Remember – We get approximately 300 mrem per year from

natural background exposure.
Minimizing Radiation Exposure
The ALARA philosophy
As low as reasonably
achievable
Why? How?
– Minimize Dose – Time
– Distance
– Shielding
The ALARA philosophy
 The goal of radiation protection is to keep radiation doses As Low As
Reasonably Achievable
 Is committed to keeping radiation exposures to all personnel ALARA.
 As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA): A principle of radiation

protection philosophy that requires that exposures to ionizing radiation be
kept as low as reasonably achievable, economic and social factors being
taken into account. The protection from radiation exposure is ALARA when
the expenditure of further resources would be unwarranted by the reduction
in exposure that would be achieved.
Minimizing Radiation Exposure
Basic Concepts
Time
 There are three basic concepts to
minimize radiation exposure:
Distance
1. Minimize the time spent near radiation
sources.
Shielding
2. Increase the distance between you and lead or concrete
radiation sources.
3. Use dense materials for shielding, such
as lead or concrete between you and the
radiation sources.
Minimize External Exposure
 Adhere to the three 1. Time
cardinal rules of (Reduce exposure time)
external radiation Less Time = Less Exposure
protection:
2. Distance
(Increase Distance)
Greater Distance = Less Exposure
3. Shielding
(Place dense object between you
and source of radiation)
More Shielding = Less Exposure
External Radiation Protection Consider This
Exposure to a source of ionizing radiation is very similar to
the exposure from a light bulb (i.e. light and heat).
The closer you are The longer you are

to the source, the close to the light bulb,
more intense the you begin to feel the
light and heat are. warming effects of the
Likewise, if you light.
move away, the If you put something If however, you move
intensity decreases. opaque between you and quickly to and from the
the light bulb, you light, you’ll not likely
effectively eliminate the feel the warming effect.
light.
Radiation Protection Basics
 Time: minimize the time that you are in contact with
radioactive material to reduce exposure.
 Distance: keep your distance. If you double the distance the
exposure rate drops by factor of 4.
 Shielding:
 Lead, water, or concrete for gamma & X-ray
 Thick plastic barrier for betas.
 Protective clothing: protects against contamination only -
keeps radioactive material off skin and clothes.
Minimizing Exposure - Time
• Minimize the amount of

time spent near sources
of radiation.
Minimize Exposure by Maximizing Distance
• Effective & Easy
• Inverse Square Law
– Doubling distance from source, decreases dose
by factor of four
– Tripling it decreases dose nine-fold
• More Distance = Less Radiation Exposure
Minimizing Exposure By Shielding
• Materials “absorb” radiation
• Proper shielding = Less Radiation
Exposure
• Plexiglass vs. Lead
Minimizing Exposure By Shielding
• Alpha particles can be stopped by a
sheet of paper.
• Most Beta particles can be stopped by

1-2 cm of plexiglass.
• Most gamma and x-ray photons can be

absorbed by several cm of lead.
• Neutrons may require several feet of

concrete..
Protection against exposure
controlled area
• The controlled area should be demarcated by a physical barrier, e.g. a
rope or bunting at the 7.5 micro Sievert per hour boundary.
• Flashing lights should also be used to mark the controlled area where the
work is carried out.
• When establishing boundaries, monitoring should be carried out.
• Access should be restricted and suitable warning signs displayed.

Protection against exposure
safe working practices
• Procedure must be prepared, including contingency plan.
• Appointed Radiation Protection Supervisor.
• Permit To Work.
• Work carried out at optimum times when practicable.
• Controlled area marked at 7.5 micro Sv / h boundary using rope
barriers or bunting.
• Suitable warning notices to be displayed.
• Restricted access.
• Use of flashing lights whilst shooting.
• Monitoring: personnel dosimeter, film badges.
143
Medicine and Research
• Colleges
• Doctors’ Offices
• Nuclear power industry
• Hospitals
• Pharmaceutical
• Research and Development e.g., Gamma irradiator
work - useful for HIV research
Power Generation
 Nuclear power supplies 20
percent of energy in the United
States.
 There are 104 nuclear power
plants in the United States.
Power Generation
 Nuclear power is a viable, environmentally friendly option for the future.
 Power generation options for the future:
Coal – produces greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.
Solar/wind/hydro (renewable) – a great option, but current technologies do not

produce enough energy to support the demand.
Nuclear – sustainable, does not produce greenhouse gases.

Nuclear Medicine
Diagnostic Procedures
• Radioactive injection
• Short half-life radionuclide
• Pictures taken with special
gamma camera
• Many different studies:
Thyroid
Lung
Cardiac
White Blood Cell
Nuclear Medicine
A nuclear medicine study involves the injection of a radioactive
material into a patient.
The gamma camera is similar to a very large Geiger counter.

It detects the radioactive material, and, with the use of a
computer, it maps out the areas where the radioactive
material is distributed throughout the patient’s body.
Technetium-99m, with a half-life of six hours, is the most

commonly used radioactive material for nuclear medicine
scanning.
Radiation Therapy
Used for treating cancer. Why does it work?
Brachytherapy (implants) External Beam

Radiation Therapy
Used for treating cancer. Why does it work?
 As previously mentioned, radiation affects different cell types differently.
 For example, cells lining the intestines and white blood cells are more
radiosensitive than muscle or nerve cells.
 Similarly, cancer cells are rapidly dividing and therefore are more
sensitive to radiation than normal healthy cells.
 This is why radiation therapy targets the cancer cells and does not have
the same impact on normal tissues.
 The dose is distributed by aiming at the tumor and rotating the linear
accelerator around the body.
Occupational Dose Limits
 The occupational dose limits for workers in US are as follows:
• Whole Body (WB) 5,000 mrem/yr
• Extremities/Skin 50,000 mrem/yr
• Lens of the Eye 15,000 mrem/yr
• Minor WB (< 18 years old) 500 mrem/year
• Declared Pregnant Worker 500 mrem/gestation

Radiation Protection Standards
 Occupational limits
5,000 mrem / year TEDE
 50,000 mrem / year CDE (any single organ)
 15,000 mrem / year lens of the eye
 Members of public
 100 mrem / year
 No more than 2 mrem in any one hour in unrestricted areas

from external sources
 Declared pregnant females (occupational)
 500 mrem / term (evenly distributed)
Access Restriction
 Required by license and Radiation Authority & regulations
 Security and control of radioactive material
Unrestricted area
Controlled area
Unrestricted area Restricted Unrestricted area

area
Labeling
Refers to areas accessible to

personnel, in which a major portion
Refers to quantities of of the body could receive a dose of 5
radioactive material mrem in any one hour at 30
used or stored. centimeters from the radiation source
or from any surface that the radiation
penetrates
Labeling, Transport and Storage
Marking:
 All equipment and packages containing radioactive substances must be labeled
with the radiation trefoil.
Storage:
Stores should be properly constructed, e.g. strong boxes in fenced off areas or in
self-contained protective boxes, located as far away from personnel as possible.
 All stores should be regularly monitored.
 Radiation level at the nearest accessible point should be less than 7.5 micro
Sievert / hour
156
Posting of Radiation
Areas
All radiation areas are posted with warning
signs
Use caution when entering and working in a

radiation area
If any container is labeled “radioactive” do

not disturb
If you have questions or concerns call: Radiation Protection

Officer, radiation safety officer at workplace.
Posting of Radiation Areas
 Radiation use will be labeled on door, work area & storage area
 Research laboratories work with very low levels of radioactive materials
 Safety can check for potential contamination prior to work in a lab that uses
radioactive materials
 As a precaution: wear gloves, safety glasses and wash hands
Emergency Response
 Fire in radioactive areas:

 Notify Fire Department and RSO/RPO, clear the area of people.
 Remove any seriously wounded persons.
 Keep your distance
 Notify RPO if you suspect:

 Inhalation, ingestion or other intake of radioactive material.
 Accidental release of radioactive material into the environment.
Ordering & Receipt of Radioactive Materials
 Only the RSO/RPO is authorized to order radioactive material.
 When packages are received, call the RSO/RPO. He will check for
contamination and deliver the package to the lab on the same day as
receipt.
 All packages containing radioactive materials must be secured to prevent
theft or loss.
 If any package is damaged, do not handle.
 Call the RSO immediately and ask the carrier to stay to be checked for
contamination.
Labels on Packages of Radioactive Material
Radioactive white I; almost no radiation (0.5

mR/hr or 0.005 mSv/hr) maximum on the
surface
Radioactive yellow II; low radiation levels

(50 mR/hr or 0.05 mSv/hr) maximum at 1
meter
Labels on Packages of Radioactive Material
Radioactive yellow III; higher radiation levels

(200 mR/hr or 2 mSv/hr) maximum on surface.
10 mR/hr or 0.1 mSv/hr maximum at 1 meter.
The transport index is the maximum radiation

level (mR/hr) at 1 meter from the surface of an
undamaged package.
Requirements for Packages
• General Requirements
– Easily and safely handled and transported
– Strong lifting attachments
– Free from protruding features
– Surface will not retain water
– Withstand effects of acceleration and vibration
– Physically and chemically compatible components
– Temperature range from -40o C to + 55oC
Your Role in Radiation Protection
 Don’t touch or move anything with radioactive material labels.
 Report anything that looks out of the ordinary
 If you are uncertain about what to do, where to go, requirements, or exposures:
 Call the people on the emergency number list
 Call the RPO / RSO
 Call 999
Radioactive Waste
Radioactive Waste Categories
a. Solid waste
b. Aqueous liquid waste
c. Organic liquid
d. Deregulated liquid scintillation vials
e. Regulated liquid scintillation vials
f. Animal carcass/tissue
g. Volatile material
h. Stock vials
Fundamental Principles
1. Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way as to secure an
acceptable level of protection for human health.
2. Radioactive waste shall be managed in such a way as to provide an
acceptable level of protection of the environment.
3. Radioactive waste shall be managed within an appropriate
national legal framework including clear allocation of
responsibilities and provision for independent regulatory functions.
4. Generation of radioactive waste shall be kept to minimum
practicable.
Radioactive Waste Guidelines
 Environmental Waste Management approved containers by half-life:
 < 30 DAYS, 30-90 DAYS, > 90 DAYS
 4 ml thick plastic bag
 Inventory sheet
 No radioactive waste is allowed in cold trash or biohazard bags
 All rad labels must be defaced before placing in waste containers
 waste pickups are scheduled on-line
Radioactive Waste Guidelines
 Put radioactive needles etc., in “radioactive” sharp container
 No liquids
 No lead pig (Deface and store lead pigs in separate containers next to
waste.
 Environmental management will pick up at time of waste pick up)
 Assure radwaste container labeled to prevent housekeeper from
emptying trash
 Call Environmental Waste Management for any questions.
Sink Disposal
 You must ensure:

 Liquids disposed down sinks designated for radioactive
liquid disposal only.[No mixed waste].
 Activity/Isotope disposed are less than the posted sink limit.
 Liquid is aqueous, soluble, and dispersible.
 Sink disposal log is complete .
Waste Management Framework
•Organization and responsibilities
• Waste inventory
• Waste management plan
• Waste minimization
• Safety assessments
• Facilities
• Transports
• Staff training
• Documentation and records
• Quality assurance
Quality Assurance
•Local rules
Normal working conditions
Accidents
•Waste identification and traceability
Record system
•Process control
Safe handling of radioactive sources
Facilities
Monitoring
Quality of containers
Arrangements for storage
Documentation
•Audits
Radiation Safety Records
 Are all records filled out and up to date?
 Inventory
 Surveys
 Waste logs
 Sink logs
Inventory Records
 You record:
 What material was received

 When it arrived (day, month and year)
 Activity received
 Chemical form
 When it was used, who used it
 Running total of activity on hand
Waste Collection, Segregation and Storage
Radioactive Waste
a. Shall ensure that any radioactive waste generated is kept to the minimum
practicable in terms of both activity and volume;
b. Shall ensure that radioactive waste is managed in accordance with the
requirements of these Standards and the requirements of other applicable
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) standards, and in accordance with
the relevant authorization;
c. Shall ensure that there is separate processing of radioactive waste of different
types, where warranted by differences in factors such as radionuclide content,
half-life, activity concentration, volume, and physical and chemical properties,
taking into account the available options for waste storage and disposal,
without mixing of waste for purposes of protection and safety;
Radioactive Waste. Contd.
d. Shall ensure that activities for the predisposal

management of and for the disposal of radioactive waste
are conducted in accordance with the requirements of
applicable IAEA standards, and in accordance with the
authorization;
e. Shall maintain an inventory of all radioactive waste that is

generated, stored, transferred or disposed of;
f. Shall develop and implement a strategy for radioactive

wast management and shall include appropriate evidence
that protection and safety is optimized.
Waste Minimization
 A good planning of the nuclear medicine activity including selection of
radionuclides and good working procedures will result in a reduced
volume of radioactive waste.
 Selection of radionuclides should take into account half-life, type of

radiation, activity etc.
 Working procedures should take into account the number of operations

and material involved in the preparation, the risk of contamination etc.
Segregation/Waste Containers
 Containers to allow segregation of different types of
radioactive waste should be available in areas where the
waste is generated.
 The containers must be suitable for purpose (volume,

shielding, leak proof, etc.)
• Glassware with radionuclides (short half-life)

• Syringes and needles
• Gloves and paper
• Glassware with radionuclides (medium half-life)
Storage of Radioactive Waste
 A room for interim storage of radioactive waste should be available.
 The room should be locked, properly marked and ventilated.
 Each type of waste should be kept in separate containers properly labeled to

supply information about the radionuclide, activity concentration etc.
 Flammable goods should be kept apart.
 Records should be kept where the origin of the waste can be identified.
Radioactive Waste
 Registrants and licensees shall ensure that radioactive

substances from authorized practices and sources not be
discharged to the environment unless:
• either clearance has been granted for the radioactive

substance or the discharge is within the discharge limits
authorized by the Regulatory Authority.
Treatment of Solid Waste
(general principles)
 The objective of the treatment process is to reduce the
volume of solid waste,
 Reduce or eliminate potential hazards associated with the
waste
 Produce waste packages suitable for destruction,
 Storage or transportation to and disposal at a licensed
repository.
182
Conditioning of Solid Waste
Waste packages
Public system National plant
 Solid waste should be conditioned in order to produce a waste form suitable

for storage and transportation governed by the properties of the waste, the
transport regulations & the specific waste disposal acceptance requirements.
Disposal of Solid
Waste
Example of national regulations of hospitals waste disposal:
Disposal via the public waste treatment system
 The dose rate at the surface of each package should be <5 uGy/h.
 The package should not contain any single sealed source with activity >50 kBq.
 Each package should be properly labeled with a warning sign containing
information on radionuclide and activity.
 The origin of the waste should also be given on the package.
Liquid Waste Effluent Discharges
Liquid Waste
Treatment
Solid Waste Effluents
 Liquid waste can be transformed to solid waste by some treatment process

such as evaporation.
 Liquid waste can be discharged to the environment if either clearance has
been granted for the radioactive substance or the discharge is within the
limits authorized by the Regulatory Authority.
Effluent Discharges:
Example of Rules
 Not more than 100 MBq at each occasion.
 Flush with plenty of water.
 Use a special sink for the discharge.
 A label should be posted informing

personnel that disposal of liquid waste is
allowed at this point.
Summary
 The requirements of the BSS and other IAEA publication formulates the general rules
regarding waste management.
 An efficient national infrastructure and policy is required.
 National regulations regarding disposal of waste should be available and form the basis
of local rules in the hospital.
 A well planned use of radionuclides is fundamental in a waste management system.
 A system for segregation of the waste should be available in the department. This
includes proper containers.
 A room for storage of waste should be available.
 A quality assurance program in nuclear medicine should include management of
radioactive waste.
Are you
Let’s take
A
The Story of NORM
Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Material
in oil and gas
Introduction
 May be you heard of NORM (or LSA), but may not be familiar with the
hazards and requirements around it.
 It aims to tell the audience the key points to remember when working with
equipment which is, or has the potential to be, NORM contaminated.
 The presentation uses the expression Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Material (NORM) to describe material contaminated with natural
radioisotopes of the Uranium-238 and Thorium-232 decay series, which
have been co-produced with reservoir fluids.
 The expression Low Specific Activity (LSA) scale is commonly used offshore,
but we are finding NORM in more and more forms.
Contents
 What is NORM (Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Material)?
 What are the risks of NORM?
 Where is NORM found?
 How is NORM detected?
 How is NORM handled and removed?
 How is NORM marked and stored?
 How is NORM disposed of?
 Key Rules of NORM
What is NORM?
Material
 Natural radioactivity from the
reservoir rocks is transported with
the oil and gas and deposited in
scales and sludge's within the
tubulars and process.
 Can be in pure scale, plated onto
sand and sludge, or a thin metallic
film on plant surfaces.
What is NORM?
Material
 Natural radioactivity is everywhere around us at very low levels:
 in the rocks under our feet (uranium),
 in the air we breathe (radon),
 in the food we eat (potassium-40).
 The radiation levels from these are at background level, and the body can generally
cope with them.
 When we produce oil and gas, some of the natural radioisotopes from the reservoir
are transported with the well fluids into the wellbore and through the processing
plant.
What is NORM? Contd.
 As this happens, temperature and pressure reduction, plus ionic

changes within the water phase of the fluids, can cause scaling.
 The scale captures and concentrates these radioisotopes, causing it to
become slightly radioactive. This is NORM.
 The radioisotopes can also be absorbed onto the surface of sand grains
and solid particles in sludges.
 It occasionally appears as thin metal films in gas systems.
What are the risks of NORM?
 Health
 Primarily an alpha emitter – weakly radioactive but toxic if absorbed into
the body through inhalation, ingestion or cuts.
 Environment
 Spreading of contamination.
 Legal
 Disposal of radioactive wastes is highly regulated.
 Reputation
 The public are afraid of radioactivity and do not wish to be exposed to our
wastes.
Contd.
The risks of NORM comes in several forms :
 Health: -
 The most obvious risk is to health.
 NORM emits mainly alpha radiation.
 This makes the external radiation risk low (alphas are very weakly penetrating,
and skin is thick enough to stop them).
 However if NORM is absorbed into the body by inhalation, ingestion or though
cuts, these alpha particles come into contact with replicating tissue, and they can
affect that replication.
 This makes NORM a toxic hazard.
Contd.
The risks of NORM comes in several forms -
 Environment: -
 It is vital that NORM is contained in one place during removal,
 So that it does not contaminate other areas of the platform.
 Our Authorisations allow us to dispose of NORM by dilution and
dispersion through discharge to sea.
 Monitoring shows that dispersion is very efficient, and no build-
ups occur.
Contd.
 Legal: -
 The legislation around radioactive wastes in general, and NORM in
particular, is complex and strict.
 It is strictly enforced by HSE and (SEPA) Safety and Emergency
Preparedness Analysis, both of whom have specialist radiation
inspectors.
 A lot of restrictions & rules around storage, discharge and record
keeping which must be met.
Contd.
 Reputation: -
 There is a general nervousness around radioactivity and particularly radioactive
waste.
 This is understandable as it is long lasting, it gives no warning, and the effects are
usually delayed and irreversible.
 While NORM is very different from, for example, nuclear fallout or Chernobyl,
radiation links them all in the public mind.
 The public also has a mixed attitude to waste.
 Waste inevitably arises from the processes we employ, and it has to go somewhere.
 However people always want it somewhere far away from them.
Where is NORM found?
 Can be found throughout the production process, inside tubulars, wellheads,
pipework, separators, valves, meters and other equipment.
 More likely at points of turbulent flow.
 Used to be confined to wet oil production equipment but now being found in
gas and seawater systems as well.
 Test all internal surfaces which have been in contact with oil, produced water,
seawater or gas.
How is NORM Detected?
• Scintillation monitor
• Geiger monitor
How is NORM handled and removed?
 The Local Rules give detailed procedures
 When NORM is detected –
 Set up a NORM Supervised area, signage, entry restricted
 Wear PPE – slicker or Tyvek suit, gloves, boots, facepiece
respirator, goggles.
 Good personal hygiene
 Monitor all surfaces as they become exposed
 Keep surfaces wet and use wet removal methods
 Record everything “Record of Work Involving NORM”
How in NORM marked and stored?
 Mark NORM contaminated items with tape,
labels and Tiew raps/tags
 Seal off orifices
 For small items, wrap in polythene
 Store in designated NORM Storage Area
until cleaning or backload can be done.
 Move items on as soon as possible
 Mark clean items as clean
How is NORM disposed of?
• There are two routes of disposal:
 Loose NORM or NORM which is removed on the platform can be

discharged to sea
 Macerated to less than 1 mm
 Dedicated hose with end below sea surface
 Estimate mass and take samples
 If oily or contaminated – contact the beach for instructions
 Contaminated equipment goes to Services for cleaning and return
or scrap
Key Rules of NORM
 Know the NORM procedures – check the Local Rules or ask the RPO
 Get what you will need before the job begins – meters, tape, PPE etc
 Test every break and internal surface immediately
 Get the end of the probe close to the surface being tested
 Record every reading (even zero readings)
 If a reading of 3 cps or over is found, NORM precautions kick in
 Do not enter the NORM Supervised Area without permission
 Decontaminate and check PPE on leaving NORM Supervised Area
 Wrap, label contaminated equipment & move to NORM Storage Area
 Cleaning offshore is done by a specialist crew
 Contaminated equipment must go for cleaning and return or scrap
 Get the paperwork done right.
Are you
Let’s take
A

Radiation Protection Awarness

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Radiation Protection Awarness

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Radiation Protection Awareness

Ahmed Zahw ,Radiation Protection Specialist.

Basis of Radiation Management Program

You Control Your Safety

Purpose of The Program

Regulatory Standard , The General Duty

Program Requirements , All Employers Must:

Importance of Radiation Safety Program

Ionizing vs. Non-Ionizing Radiations

 Acute effects – high levels of radiation produce effects

 As either particles or rays

 This process is called radioactive decay.

 Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that has sufficient energy to dislodge orbital

 Ionizing radiation can be generated by electronic means (x-ray units) or

 Ionization means that:

 He did not know what kind of rays were

 Roentgen produced first x-ray image - his own

William Roentgen  His work sparked feverish research, especially in

 Becquerel put different elements in the sun and

 One day in 1896 there was no sun and he put

 The next day the plate was cloudy! Energy was

 Marie and Pierre Curie spent years

Marie and Pierre Curie

 Rutherford found three different types of

 Four main types of ionizing radiation

alpha, beta, gamma and neutrons

 The alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a

 Consists of 2 protons & 2 neutrons

 An alpha particle weighs more than one beta

 An alpha particle moves a short distance because

 Range in air 1 to 2 inches

 Outer layer of skin

 Emitted from nucleus.

 Beta particles moving at nearly the speed of light and can be

 Range in air about 10 feet.

Gamma and X-Ray Shielding:

 When an atom’s nucleus gives off excess energy, the process is

 Radioactive half-life is the time it takes half the radioactive

 Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process in which nucleons are emitted

 Different materials (radionuclides) have different half-lives. Depending on

 There are two systems of units used in the measurement of

Radioactivity refers to the amount of ionizing radiation released by a

Exposure Absorbed Dose Dose Equivalent

2. Exposure describes the amount of radiation traveling through the air.

1 R = 1000 milliroentgen (mR)

3. Absorbed dose describes the amount of radiation absorbed by an

 Radioactive materials in sandstone, concrete, brick, natural stone, gypsum &

Fiesta Ware Nuclear

Contains Triatomic hydrogen H-3

Glazed with dye

Your exposure to radiation

because background radiation

 Know what to do before it happens!  Notify co-workers.

Exposure: measure of the ionisation produced in air by gamma rays.

Dose: measure of energy deposited by radiation in a material

 Mechanism of damage: radiation causes atoms and molecules to become ionised

Occupationally Exposed Worker:

General Public: 100 mrem/year or 2mrem/hour

• We want to reduce the probability of the occurrence of stochastic effects

• Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE), TEDE = Internal + External

• The dose of radiation expected to cause death to 50 % of an exposed population

What is a pocket dosimeter?

What is a radiation dosimeter?

 Who should wear a personal  Personal monitoring – Why??