CRYPTOGRAPHY

&
NUMBER THEORY
What is Cryptography?

 Cryptography is a method of protecting

information and communications through
the use of codes, so that only those for
whom the information is intended can read
and process it.

 It involves encrypting, decrypting and

transporting classified messages using
varied techniques.
The Connection with Mathematics

NUMBER THEORY PROBABILITY

The knowledge of numbers, Estimation of chances of

especially prime numbers hold decryption of a particular
key importance in the field of code involves fundamentals
cryptography. of probability
Vignere Cipher
• The Vigenère cipher is a method of encrypting alphabetic text
where each letter of the plaintext is encoded with a different
Caesar cipher.
• In this a plain text has more than one cipher equivalent.
The Mathematical Aspect
• Let the message to be encrypted be ONE IF BY DAWN
• Taking the letter K as seed the keyword becomes, KONEIFBYDAW
• Converting this into numerical form and adding the integers in
matching positions modulo 26 yields the cipher text –
YBR MN GZ BDWJ
• Decipherment can be achieved by returning to the numerical form. If
P1, P2… be digital equivalents and C1, C2… be cipher text equivalents
and S be the seed, then
Pk ≡ Ck – Pk-1 (mod 26) 2 ≤ k ≤ n
Flaws and Weaknesses
• If the length of keyword is determined each letter can be subjected to
frequency analysis and it can be broken relatively easily.
• The Kasiski Test – which checks whether something is being repeated,
and if it is, the key is probably divisible by that length.
Transition to the modern era
• In the 1970’s systems involving modular exponentiation became
popular and prominent.
• In contrast to conventional cryptosystems where the sender and
receiver have the same secret key, these required 2 keys.
• 1 of them is used is used to encrypt the message while the other is
used to decrypt.
Modular Exponentiation
 Mathematical Aspect
THE BROWN FOX IS QUICK
• To encrypt this message it can be transformed into the numerical string,
19072426011714221326051423260818261620080210
• Next, the sender disguises the plaintext number M as a cipher text r by raising
M to the kth power and reducing the result modulo p – that is, Mk ≡ r (mod p)
• At the other end, the recipient deciphers the text by first determining the
recovery integer 2 ≤ j ≤ p-2, the recovery exponent for which,
kj ≡ 1 (mod p-1).
• Using Euclidean algorithm, kx + (p-1)y = 1.
• The recipient can retrieve M from r by using Fermat’s Theorem.
Drawbacks
• The major problem in modular exponentiation is the secure delivery
of the encryption key, for the key must be provided in advance of a
ciphertext message.
• There is also the disadvantage of having to make frequent changes to
the encryption key.
• The concept of public-key cryptography was thus introduced to
circumvent these difficulties.
Public Key Cryptography
• This technology uses 2 keys which can be safely made public.
• The sender and receiver don’t have to decide a key beforehand or
even meet before.
• It relies on the fact that through current technology, factorization of
extremely large composite numbers involving 2 large primes is
prohibitively time consuming.
The Mathematical Aspect
• To initiate communication, a RSA user chooses distinct primes p and q
large enough to place factorization of their product n = pq, the
enciphering modulus.
NO WAY TODAY
• Converting to digital equivalent, M=1314 2622 0024 2619 1403 0024
(Expressed as 4 digit blocks)
• Corresponding ciphers are obtained by raising each block to 47 power
and reducing the results modulo 2701.
131447 ≡ 1241 (mod 2701)
• The completed encryption of the message is the list –
1241 1848 0873 1614 2081 0873
Strengths and Weaknesses
• The expected amount of time to factor the insanely large number is a
lot.
• The fastest algorithm takes approximately 1.2 * 10^23 operations to
resolve an integer within 200 digits into prime factors which is close to 4
million years.
• It could be broken for some unimaginable, extremely effiecient
algorithm but for the time being it appears to be quite safe.
• A greater threat is posed by the use of widely distributed networks of
computers working simultaneously on pieces of data necessary for
factorization. This is seen in factoring of RSA-129, one of the most
famous problems in cryptography.
Applications of RSA and Future Prospects
Some other cryptosystems alongside RSA
• Knapsack prob
• Elgamal System
• MD5, SHA