Efforts - Trait, Behavior, Power, influence, Situational

and integrative approaches to leadership development

 Traits
• The theories that sought personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits that
differentiated leaders from non-leaders
• The traits are the inherent attributes of the leaders to keep them distinct from others
– For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the prime minister of UK, was recognized for her leadership
in terms of her confidence, iron-willed, determined, and decisive.
• A research study was conducted in the 1930s to study the attributes that differentiate
the leaders from non-leaders.
• A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits, though the study
was not aimed to identify the leadership traits
• Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them were common to all cases, which
included personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits.
• Earliest approach to study leadership used to identify great persons from masses
• Based on the assumption of - certain traits = success/effectiveness
• The logic of leadership traits is as basic as height, as complex as intelligence
• How Leaders Differ from Non-leaders?
– According to Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991), leaders can be distinguished from non-leaders on the
basis of SIX attributes or traits: Drive, Desire to lead, Honesty and integrity, Self-confidence,
Intelligence, Job-relevant knowledge.
Personality factors for effective leadership:
 Criticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership

• The belief that personality traits determine the

rate of success of a leader could easily be
challenged because practically it is very hard to
distinguish leaders from non-leaders based on
personality traits
• There exists a very thin relationship between
traits and leader’s success
• Some traits are achieved by birth
• Personality traits without motivation are
worthless for success
 Behavioural theories
• Pattern of actions used by different individuals determines
leadership potential
• Examples:
– Autocratic, democratic and Laissez-Faire
– Michigan Studies: Employee Centered Vs. task centered

• Three Approaches to Behavioural studies:

1. Studies based on Leadership styles

2. Studies based on leadership Dimensions, and
3. Studies based on Leadership Grid
 1. Studies based on Leadership styles

a) University of Iowa Studies (Kurt Lewin)

• Identified three leadership styles:
– Autocratic style: centralized authority, low participation
– Democratic style: involvement, high participation, feedback
– Laissez faire style: hands-off management

• Lewin, Lippit, White and his lowa associates wondered which of

these 3 leadership styles was the most effective.

• Research findings: mixed results

– No specific style was consistently better for producing better
performance
– Employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader
than an autocratic leader.
Which is the best style?
b) Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum of leader Behavior
 2. Studies based on leadership Dimensions

a) Ohio State Studies

• Identified two dimensions of leader behavior
– Initiating structure: the role of the leader in defining his or her role and
the roles of group members
– Consideration: the leader’s mutual trust and respect for group members’
ideas and feelings.

• Research findings: mixed results

– High-high leaders generally, but not always, achieved high group task
performance and satisfaction.
– Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly influence
leadership effectiveness.
b) University of Michigan Studies
• Identified two dimensions of leader behavior
– Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships
– Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment

• Research findings:
– Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly associated with
high group productivity and high job satisfaction.
3. Studies based on Leadership/ Managerial Grid

– Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the graphical

portrayal of the two dimensions view of leadership. The
grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine matrix outlining
81 different leadership styles.
– Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions:
• Concern for people
• Concern for production
– Places managerial styles in five categories:
• Impoverished management
• Task management
• Middle-of-the-road management
• Country club management
• Team management
 Exhibit :
The
Managerial
Grid
 Conceptions of Power and Influence

Power
• Capacity of one party (the agent) to influence
another party (the target)
• Influence the behavior or attitudes of one or
more designated target persons at a given point
in time
Authority
• The right of the agent to exercise control over
things associated with particular positions
The scope of authority
 Outcomes of Influence Attempts
Commitment
– The target agrees with a decision or request and makes a great effort to carry
out the request or implement the decision effectively
Compliance
– The target is willing to do what the agent asks but is apathetic rather than
enthusiastic about it and will make only a minimal effort
Resistance
The target person opposed to the proposal or request
1. Refuse to carry out the request
2. Make excuses about why the request cannot be carried out
3. Try to persuade the agent to withdraw or change the request
4. Ask higher authorities to overrule the agent’s request
5. Delay acting
6. Make a pretense of complying but try to sabotage the task
 Influence Processes
Instrumental Compliance
– The target carries out a requested action --The purpose is obtaining
a reward or avoiding a punishment. The motivation is instrumental
(the only reason is benefit)
Internalization
– The target person becomes committed to support and implement
Because they appear to be desirable and correct in relation to the
target’s values, beliefs, and self-image
Personal Identification
– Target person imitates the agent’s behavior or adopts the same
attitudes to please the agent and to be like the agent
• Motivation is target person’s need of acceptance and esteem
 Power Types and Sources
(French & Raven (1959); Bass(1960), Entzioni (1961); Yukl &
Falbe (1991))
1. Position Power
– Legitimate power
– Reward power
– Coercive power
– Information power
– Ecological power
2. Personal Power
– Referent power
– Expert power
Power Types & Sources: Legitimate Power
• Power stemming from formal authority over work activities
• The target person complies because he/she believes the agent
has the right to make the request and the target person has the
obligation to comply
• Higher level managers usually have more authority than lower-
level managers
• The way in which legitimate power is exercised affects the
outcome :
– Guidelines for Using Legitimate Authority
• Explain the reasons for a request
• Do not exceed your scope of authority
• Make polite clear request
• Etc.
 Reward Power
• Stems in part from formal authority to allocate resources and
rewards -- from control over benefits such as a promotion, a better
job, a better work schedule, a larger operating budget, a larger
expense account, larger office
• The target person complies in order to obtain rewards controlled by
the agent
• Much more over subordinates than over peers or superiors
– The way in which reward power is exercised affects the outcome :
Guidelines for Using Reward Power
• Offer rewards that are fair and ethical
• Offer the type of rewards that people desire
• Do not promise more than you can deliver
• Explain the criteria for giving rewards
• Etc.
 Coercive Power
• Based on authority over punishments
– The target person complies in order to avoid
punishments controlled by the agent
• General decline in use of legitimate coercion by
all types of leaders
– Avoid using coercion except when absolutely
necessary
– Difficult to use, and likely to result in undesirable side
effects
– Arouses anger or resentment
 Information Power
• Results from a person’s position
– Control over information
– Access to vital information
– Control over its distribution
• Actively involved in cultivating a network of
information sources and gathering
information
• Way to enhance their expert power and
increase subordinate dependence
• Easier for a leader to cover up failures and
 Ecological Power
• Control over the physical environment, technology, and
organization
• Opportunity for indirect influence over other people •
– Design of subordinate jobs - Improvements in work quality and job
satisfaction
– Design of formal structure - The grouping of activities into subunits,
determination of reporting relationships, design of information
systems
– Control over the physical work environment - Lights, On equipment,
machine-paced assembly lines set the speed at which employees work
– Cultural engineering - Shared norms, values, and beliefs of members.
Strong culture influence the attitudes and behavior of members
(Schein, 1992)
 Referent Power
• Derived from the desire of others to please an agent toward
whom they have strong feelings of affection, admiration, and
loyalty
• The target person complies because he/she admires or identifies
with the agent and wants to gain the agent’s approval
• The strongest form - Personal identification
• Greater for someone who is friendly, attractive, charming, and
trustworthy
• Increased by showing concern for the needs and feelings of
others. Treating people fairly
• Strong referent power will increase the agent’s influence even
without any explicit effort by the agent to invoke this power
 Expert Power
• Task-relevant knowledge and skill are a major
source of personal power in organizations
• Unique knowledge about the best way to
perform a task
• The target person complies because he/she
believes that the agent has special knowledge
about the best way to do something
– Target person must recognize this expertise
– Expertise is maintained through a continual
process of education and practical experience
 How Power Is Acquired or Lost
• Power is not a static condition.
• It changes over time Social exchange theory
Between leaders and followers in small groups
• Strategic Contingencies theory Different
subunits of an organization

• The two theories

– Focus at different levels of analysis
– Emphasize importance of demonstrated expertise
for the acquisition of authority
 Situational/ Contingency
approaches
• Leaders traits and /or leader behaviours are
important aspects but must be taken in
context. That is, the situation matters.
• Selected studies on Situational/ Contingency
approaches:
1. Fiedler’s Contingency theory
2. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational (Life Cycle)
theory
3. House’s Path-Goal Theory
 Contingency Theories of
Leadership
• The Fiedler Model
– Proposes that effective group performance
depends upon the proper match between the
leader’s style of interacting with followers and the
degree to which the situation allows the leader to
control and influence.
– Assumptions:
• A certain leadership style should be most effective in
different types of situations.
• Leaders do not readily change leadership styles.
– Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation
– Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire
• Determines leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs of
contrasting adjectives.
– High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style
– Low score: a task-oriented leadership style
• According to Fiedler, a person is one or the other – it is a
fixed personality trait.
– Situational factors in matching leader to the situation:
• According to Fiedler, a leader’s behavior is dependent upon the favorability of the
leadership situation.
• Three factors work together to determine how favorable a situation is to a leader.
These are:
– Leader-member relations -- the degree of confidence, trust and respect subordinates
have for their leader; rated as either good / bad.
– Task structure -- the degree to which the job assignments are formalized and procedurised;
rated as either high / low.
– Position power -- the degree of influence a leader has over power-based activity such as
hiring, firing, discipline, promotions and salary increases; rated as either strong / weak.
 Fielder’s Least Preferred Co-worker Scale

Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly
Unpleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pleasant
Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Accepting
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Relaxed
Cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Warm
Boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Interesting
Backbiting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Loyal
Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative
Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive
Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open
Insincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sincere
Unkind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kind
Inconsiderate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Considerate
Untrustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Trustworthy
Gloomy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cheerful
Quarrelsome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Harmonious
• Task-oriented (Low LPC) : Leader is best when
situation either favourable or unfavourable.
• Employee-oriented (High LPC): : Leader is best
when situation moderately favourable.

• Possible uses of the Fiedler’s theory:

– Train leaders in needed style (Fiedler says no)
– Match the leader with the job (Fiedler says this is
a good start)
– Engineer the job to fit the manager (Fiedler says
this is the best approach)
Exhibit : Findings of the Fiedler Model
• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT)
– A contingency approach to leadership that links the leader’s
behavioural style with the task readiness (maturity) of
Subordinates.
– Also known as ‘life cycle’ theory.
– No single best way to lead
– Focus on maturity or readiness of followers
• Ability and Willingness
– Adjust emphasis on task and relationship behaviors according to
readiness of followers to perform their tasks
– Based on
• Style of Leadership
– Giving direction (task behaviour)
– Giving motivational support (relationship behaviour)
• “Readiness” of followers to perform a task
– Ability
– Willingness

– Argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right

leadership style which is contingent on the level of the followers’
readiness.
• Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers accept or
reject a leader.

• Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to
accomplish a specific task.

– Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers as

they become more competent.
– Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating
Fiedler’s two leadership dimensions:
• Directing /Telling: (high task-low relationship leadership) : the leader defines the
roles and tells people what, how, when and where to do various tasks.

• Coaching /Selling: (high task-high relationship leadership) : the leader provides

both directive behaviour and supportive behaviour.

• Supporting /Participating: (low task-high relationship leadership) : the leader and

follower share in decision-making ; the main role of the leader is facilitating and
communicating.

• Delegating: (low task-low relationship leadership) : the leader provides little

direction or support.
– The final component in Hersey and
Blanchard’s theory is defining four
stages follower readiness:
• R1: Unable and Insecure or Unwilling –
Follower is unable and insecure and lacks
confidence or the follower lacks commitment
and motivation to complete tasks.

• R2: Unable but Confident or Willing –

Follower is unable to complete tasks but has
the confidence as long as the leader provides
guidance or the follower lacks the ability but
is motivated and making an effort.

• R3: Able but Insecure or Unwilling – Follower

has the ability to complete tasks but is
apprehensive about doing it alone or the
follower is not willing to use that ability.

• R4: Able and Confident and Willing – Follower

has the ability to perform and is confident
about doing so and is committed.
• Leader Participation Model (Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton)
– Posits that leader behavior must be adjusted to reflect the task structure
—whether it is routine, non-routine, or in between—based on a
sequential set of rules (contingencies) for determining the form and
amount of follower participation in decision making in a given situation.
1. Leadership Styles in the Vroom Leader Participation Model
2. Leader Participation Model Contingencies/ Situation time driver decision
model and followers development driven decision model
2) Leader Participation Model Contingencies:

– Decision significance
– Importance of commitment
– Leader expertise
– Likelihood of commitment
– Group support
– Group expertise
– Team competence
 Exhibit : 1) Leadership Styles in the Vroom Leader Participation Model

• Decide: Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it
to group.
• Consult Individually: Leader presents the problem to group members
individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision.
• Consult Group: Leader presents the problem to group members in a
meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision.
• Facilitate: Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and,
acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the boundaries within which
a decision must be made.
• Delegate: Leader permits the group to make the decision within
prescribed limits.
 Exhibit :
Time-Driven
Model
 Robert J. House Path-Goal Model
– This is based on expectancy theory of motivation.
– States that “the leader’s job is to assist his or her followers in attaining their
goals and to provide direction or support to ensure their goals are compatible with
organizational goals.”
• In another words, a leader should emphasize either path
clarification or adjust rewards depending on the factors affecting
a person’s motivation.
– Leaders assume different leadership styles at different times depending on the
situation:
1) Directive Leadership: The leader explains the performance goal and provides specific rules
and regulations to guide subordinates toward achieving it.

2) Supportive Leadership: The leader displays personal concern for subordinates. This includes
being friendly to subordinates and sensitive to their needs.

3) Participative Leadership: The leader consults with subordinates about work, task goals, and
paths to resolve goals. This leadership style involves sharing information as well as
consulting with subordinates before making decisions.

4) Achievement-oriented Leadership: The leader emphasises the achievement of difficult tasks

and the importance of excellent performance and simultaneously displays confidence that
• Path-goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change their
style, as situations require.
• The theory proposes two contingency variables, such as environment and
follower characteristics, that moderate the leader behavior-outcome relationship.
– Environment is outside the control of the follower-task structure, authority system,
and work group.
• Environmental factors determine the type of leader behavior required if the
follower outcomes are to be maximized.
• Follower characteristics are the locus of control, experience, and perceived ability.
• Personal characteristics of subordinates determine how the environment and
leader are interpreted.
– Effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve goals and make the
journey easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls.
– Research demonstrates that employee performance and satisfaction are positively
influenced when the leader compensates for the shortcomings in either the employee
or the work setting.
• In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the path-goal model states that the
four leadership styles are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four
depending on what the situation demands.
Exhibit: Path-Goal Theory
Supportive leadership
Directive leadership
Path Goal Theory
 Integrative approach
• This involves more than one type of leadership
variable in the same study (two or more)
• But it is still rare to find a theory that includes
all of them (Traits, behavior, influential
process, situational variables and outcomes)
• Example of integrative approach – Self-
concept theory of charismatic leadership
( explains why the followers of some leaders
are willing to major sacrifices to accomplish
group objectives)