Practical Exercise Physiology

PE revision
Principles of Training
Why undertake training?
 Training is undertaken by some individuals to improve performance
through skill development and physical fitness. Others individuals take part
in training as an activity in itself – with a health related fitness programme.
 Training is a long-term commitment as changes take place over time.
 Adaption response: the changes that occur in the body as a result of
training. This response is not immediate – it takes place over months.

The main principles of training:

 Specificity
 Overload
 Progression
 Overtraining
 Reversibility
 Tedium
Principles of Training
Specificity
 Definition: making training specific to the demands of the activity.
 E.g. A swimmer would benefit more from swimming than they would jogging.
 The relevance and the choice of training exercise can be considered by asking questions:
 Does the training exercise stress the appropriate energy system (e.g. aerobic or anaerobic) – the same
one being used in the activity you are training for?
 Are the skills being practiced relevant to the chosen activity? (e.g. using the same skills in training as in
the activity you are training for)
 Is the training using the same muscle groups as the activity you are training for?
 Levels of adaption is dependent on the following factors:
 Too little stress – little or no adaption
 Too much stress – little or no adaption (fatigue)
 The performers base level of fitness – a sedentary person can have a bigger range of
adaption than an elite performer as they are not fit at all.
 The performers health or injury status.
 The performers previous experiences with sporting stress – a person who has
experienced training will be able to cope with the psychological demands.
 The environment where the training occurs (e.g. Higher altitude = greater adaption's)
Principles of Training
Overload
 Definition: improvements in fitness result from exercising harder than normal.
 The basic idea underlying training is that to produce performance improvements, athletes must
overload the energy systems required to perform certain movements. Overloading refers to the
fact that the workload and resistance is greater than normal.
 It is basically an increase in demand to force bodily adaption.
 The safest way to overload the body is to alter one of the FITT principles.
 Responses from the body because of overload:
 Initially, the response is fatigue.
 When the loading stops there is a process of recovery – recovery and adaption take the athlete to a higher level of
fitness from where they started.

Fatigue
Improved
Overload recovery
fitness
adaption
Principles of Training
Progression
 Definition: gradually increasing the level of workload in training as the body adapts
and fitness improves.
 The idea that if you overload you will gain the adaptations of improved fitness.
Therefore, because you are fitter, you will need to overload more as time goes on to
make training harder than normal.
 It also implies that there is an optimal level of overload that should be achieved, and
an optimal timeframe for this overload to occur. Overload should not be increased
too slowly or improvement is unlikely, but overload that is increased too rapidly will
result in fatigue or injury.
 Makes us realise the need for proper rest and recovery – continual stress on the body
and constant overload will result in exhaustion and injury. Psychological stress and
damage could also occur.
Principles of Training
Overtraining
 Definition: training too hard and not allowing sufficient time for the body
to adapt to training loads.
 It is important not to overtrain or overload the body so much that it
experiences complete exhaustion and cannot adapt properly because there is
too much damage – rest is no longer adequate for recovery.
 Decline in performance caused by incomplete adaption is one of the most
obvious signs of overtraining.
 Additional signs of overtraining include:
 Irritability and moodiness
 Altered sleep patterns
 Loss of appetite
 Loss of motivation or competitive drive
 Persistent muscle soreness
 Fatigue not relieved by rest
 Increased incident of illness or injury
Principles of Training
Reversibility
 Definition: the idea that you lose fitness faster than you gain it.
 If athletes are not training regularly, there is no need for their bodies to
adapt.
 Maintaining and increasing training frequency helps performers improve
their fitness. However, when training ceases the training effect will also
stop.
 Fitness gradually reduces at approximately one third of the rate of speed
that is was gained.
Principles of Training
Tedium
 Definition: training the same way all the time is boring; everybody needs variation
in their training.
 Training is a long-term process and overloading in exactly the same way all the time
introduces tedium. Even recovery can become boring – variety needs to be
introduced into an athlete’s training programme.
 Training muscle groups in similar ways (cross training) is beneficial.
 Variety is an alternative way of producing stress and is a necessary part of an
athlete’s progression.
 A weekly and monthly schedule should contain alternating periods of hard and easy
work.
 Work should alternate with periods of rest to allow the body to adapt to the changes
that have occurred.
The FITT Principles
Frequency:
 The frequency of exercise is a fine balance between providing just enough stress for
the body to adapt to and allowing enough time for healing and adaption to occur.
 Frequency means how often you do an activity.
 For most aerobic activities it is recommended that training should take place 4-5
times per week. For anaerobic activities the recommendation is 3 times a week to
allow full recovery.

Intensity:
 Intensity is the amount of effort that should be invested in a training programme or
any one session.
 There must be a balance between finding enough intensity to overload the body so it
can adapt but not cause overtraining.
 Intensity means how hard you train. Overload can be adjusted by varying the
intensity at which the performer works. The major methods that involve increasing
or decreasing one or more of the following: load, repetitions, range of movement,
duration of effect, sets, recovery, frequency of sessions, speed.
The FITT Principles
Type:
 Dictates what type or kind of exercise you should choose to achieve the appropriate training
response. There are many ways of training, but most can be grouped into the following:
continuous, intermittent, circuit, weight, plyometric, mobility.

Time:
 How long you should be exercising for. The time involved depends largely on the type of
training.
 For continuous/circuit/mobility: for a minimum of 20-30 minutes but can increase to as much
as 45-60 minutes as fitness levels increase.
 Beyond a certain time, benefits are minimal and can cause overtraining and injury. However,
there are exceptions to this such as endurance athletes (marathon runners).
 In terms of the duration programme as a whole, research suggests a minimum of 6 weeks is
required to see noticeable improvements and as much as a year or more before a peak fitness is
reached.
 For anaerobic training (intermittent, weights and plyometrics):no longer than 45 – 60 minutes.
Measuring Intensity
The Borg Scale
What is it?
 A simple rating of how hard the performer thinks their body is working.
 Also known as the Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE).
 Used by coaches to assess athlete’s level of intensity during training sessions.

How does it work?

 Based on the physical sensations a person experiences during physical activities (e.g. Increased
heart rate, increased breathing rate, increased sweating and muscle fatigue).
 Performers assign numbers to how they feel during exercise.
 6 = no exertion at all
 7-9 = light exertion
 13-15 = somewhat hard
 16-17 = very hard
 18 – 19 = extremely hard
 20 = maximal exertion
 Research has shown a high correlation between a person’s
perceived exertion ratings times 10 and the actual heart rate
during physical activity.
 However, this calculation is only an approximation of heart rate,
and the actual heart rate can vary a bit.
Measuring Intensity
Heart Rate
What is it?
 Determining whether a person’s pulse or heart rate is within their target zone during physical
activity.
 Based on knowing your maximum heart rate and then calculating training zones.

How does it work?

 Maximum heart rate = 220 – age
 For moderate intensity physical activity, a person’s target heart rate should be 50% - 70% of
maximum heart rate. This is the aerobic training zone.
 For vigorous-intensity physical activity, a persons heart rate should be 70% - 85% maximum
heart rate. This is the anaerobic training zone.
 The performer can record their heart rate
during activity and then adjust the intensity
levels relating to whether they are in the
right training zones.
Measuring Intensity
The Karvonen Method
What is it?
 Uses your heart rate range, which is your maximum heart – resting heart rate.

How does it work?

 This value is then used in the following formula to find the appropriate heart rate for
any intensity level:
(Heart rate range x intensity %) + (resting heart rate)

 Many coaches use five zones or training intensities:

 Easy/recovery = 60-70%
 Moderate endurance = 71-80%
 Hill work = 81-85%
 Race pace for endurance athletes = 86-90%
 Speed/racing = 91-100%
Measuring Intensity
One rep max
What is it?
 Used in weight training and some circuit training programmes.
 Can measure intensity as some proportion or a performers one repetition maximum.

How does it work?

 Workload can have three components:
 The amount of weight lifted during an exercise.
 The number of repetitions completed for a particular exercise.
 The length of time to complete all exercises in a set or
total training session.
 So, you can increase workload by lifting heavier
weights, increasing the number of repetitions with the
same weight, or decrease the rest time between sets.
 However, you should only increase the intensity using
one of these as it can be dangerous.
Fitness Testing
Bioelectrical impedance test:
 Measures body composition.
 Equipment: scales, height measurer, bioelectrical impedance analyser.
 Procedure:
 The person being measured should be in limited contact with any other surface, as the test measures resistance
of bodily tissues.
 Legs apart and arms in front of the body.
 The person being measured will put their height, weight, age and gender into the analyser and press start.
 They will receive a percentage (body fat %) and their BMI.

Situp test:
 Measures muscular endurance.
 Equipment: floor mat, stop watch, partner to hold feet.
 Procedure:
 The aim of the test is to perform as many situps as possible in 30 seconds.
 Lie on the mat with knees bent at right angles, feet flat on the floor and held down by
partner, fingers interlocked behind the head.
 On ‘go’, raise the chest so upper body is vertical and then return to floor.

12 minute Cooper run:

 Measures cardiovascular endurance.
 Equipment: flat running space, cones, stopwatch.
 Procedure:
 Place markers at set intervals around a track.
 Participants run for 12 minutes, and the total distance covered is recorded.
 It is a maximal test, but walking is allowed if necessary.
Reasons for Fitness Testing
Reasons for fitness testing:
 Provide a starting point for any training programme.
 Establish the strengths and weaknesses of an athlete.
 Compare test results to other athletes in same group/population/age.
 Allows areas to see areas which need to improve, and the training can be modified
accordingly.
 Testing at regular intervals can allow an idea of effectiveness of training programme.
 Helps motivate performers by the incentive to improve enough to reach the goal of
a certain test score and aim to improve.
 Provides indication of whether training programme is successful, or if it has improved
certain aspects of fitness.
 Provides coach with knowledge of performers future performance.
 Add variety to training programme.
 Can be used as training in their own rate – maximal tests may actually improve fitness.

Problems with fitness testing:

 May hinder performers preparation for an activity or interfere with training.
 May cause fatigue to performer, making them unable to train or compete.
 May make performer susceptible to injury.
 Knowledge of result may de-motivate and decrease confidence for an actual
competition.
Fitness Testing Protocol
Specific to sport:
 The test must mimic one or a combination of the fitness demands of that sport (e.g. If the sports
requires participants to run, the test should involve running rather than cycling).
 Sport specificity may also extend to requiring the participant to perform the test in full kit (e.g.
batsman in cricket may wear a helmet, pads and carry a bat).

Validity:
 The test must assess what it is intending to (e.g. an assessment of maximal strength must
measure maximal strength and not muscular endurance).
 If the test lack sport specificity then it is also likely to lack validity.
 A lot of tests are generalised and not really sport specific.

Reliability:
 How repeatable a test is and how consistent the results are.
 If a performer was to repeat a test under the same conditions with no change in their fitness,
then they should produce the same results.
 This is essential for fitness tests, because if the test is reliable, then any differences in scores
are due to changes in fitness rather than inaccuracies in the test.
Fitness Testing Protocol
Accuracy:
 Part of the test validity and reliability.
 Covers aspects as the accuracy to which measurements can be recorded (e.g. stopwatch timing of a sprint).
 The instrumentation used needs to be considered.

Maximal and sub-maximal tests:

 Mainly concerned with tests of stamina.
 A maximal test is where the performer works at a maximum effort or is tested to exhaustion (e.g. multi-
stage fitness test). These are more accurate as they measure the limits of fatigue. However, there are also
limits to maximal tests: difficulty ensuring the individual exerts maximum effort, health and injury dangers
of over exertion, dependent on motivation levels.
 Sub-maximal tests involve the performer working, but not to exhaustion. Sub maximal tests remove the
advantages of exhaustion and motivation, but they have limited accuracy as they are only estimating
stamina.

Standardising test protocol:

 A test protocol is the way a test is run or conducted. Unless a test protocol is closely standardised it will not
generate meaningful data that can be compared.
 For example, there are a number of variations of the sit-up (e.g. subject having feet free or held by partner).
Variations such as this effect the difficulty of the exercise and the number of repetitions likely to be
achieved.
 In tests where the number of repetitions completed within a set time limit is being recorded, the quality of
movement must be standardised and must not be sacrificed in the desire for speed.
Fitness Testing
Sit and reach test:
 Measures flexibility.
 Equipment: sit and reach box.
 Procedure:
 Sit on the floor with legs stretched out straight ahead, shoes removed, soles of feet placed flat against the box and both knees should
be locked and pressed flat to the floor.
 The participant has to reach forward along the measuring line as far as possible , holding this position for two seconds.

Handgrip dynamometer (strength test):

 Measures muscular strength.
 Equipment: handgrip dynamometer.
 Procedure:
 The participant holds the dynamometer in the dominant hand to be tested, with the arm at right angles and
the elbow by the side of the body.
 The participant has to squeeze the handle with maximum effort.

Illinois agility run:

 Measures agility.
 Equipment: flat surface, cones, stopwatch, measuring tape, timing gates (optional).
 Procedure:
 The length of the course is 10m and the width is 5m. Four cones are used to mark the start,
finish and the two turning points. Another 4 cones are placed down the centre spaced 3.3m apart.
 Participants should lie on their front (head on the start line) and hands by their shoulders.
 On ‘go’ the stopwatch is started and the participant gets up as quickly as possible and runs
around the course.
Fitness Testing
Standing stork test:
 Measures balance.
 Equipment: flat surface, stopwatch.
 Procedure:
 The performer stands on one leg with the base of the foot resting on the other knee and hands on hips.
 On ‘go’ the performer goes onto one tiptoe and holds this position for as long as possible. The time
that they can hold the position for is recorded.

Anderson ball toss:

 Measures coordination.
 Equipment: tennis ball, smooth wall, stopwatch.
 Procedure:
 The performer stands 2m from a wall.
 The ball is thrown from one hand in an underarm action against the wall and caught with
the opposite hand. The ball is then thrown back against the wall and caught with the initial hand.
This is counted as one.
 The aim of the test is to see how many full tosses you can get in 30 seconds.

Sargent jump test:

 Measures power.
 Equipment: wall, measuring tape, chalk for marking wall.
 Procedure:
 The performer stands side on to a wall and reaches up with the hand closest to the wall, keeping the
feet flat on the ground. This is called the standing reach height and is marked onto the wall with chalk.
 The performer then leaps vertically as high as possible and attempts to touch the wall at the highest
point of the jump. The place that the performer has touched is marked.
 The best of three attempts is recorded and the difference between the standing reach height and
jump height is measured.
Fitness Testing
Ruler drop test:
 Measures reaction time.
 Equipment: metre ruler, assistant.
 Procedure:
 The ruler is held by the assistant between the outstretched index finger and thumb of the athlete’s dominant
hand (top of athletes thumb is level with zero on the ruler).
 The athlete has to catch the ruler as soon as possible after it has been released.
 The assistant records the distance between the bottom of the ruler and the top of the athletes thumb.

30m sprint test:

 Measures speed.
 Equipment: measuring tape or marked track, stopwatch/timing gates, cones, flat surface of
at least 50m.
 Procedure:
 The test involves running a single maximum sprint over 30m, with the time recorded.
 Start in a stationary position with one foot after the over, and on ‘go’ run to the other set of cones 30m away,
with the time being recorded.
The Warm-up
Reasons for warming up:
 Increased temperature in the body and muscles.
 Better oxygen delivery to the muscles.
 Better chemical reactions that improve energy production and reduce
fatigue.
 Improved muscle blood flow and relaxation.
 Increased sensitivity of nerve receptors and speed of nerve conduction.
 Rehearsal of movement.
 Improved psychological preparation.
 Reduces incidence and likelihood of injury.
 Supplies blood to the heart, increasing its efficiency.
The Warm-up
Components of a warm-up
General warm-up
 Start with general activities such as jogging to produce sweating without fatigue.
 This increases body temperature.

Stretching
 Incorporate a range of stretching exercises that work on the parts of the body used during the
activity.
 Many performers have a set series of stretches.
 Stretches should be held for 30-60 seconds and then relaxed for 5 seconds.
 Stretching improves flexibility and increases relaxation of the muscles.

Specific warm up
 Practice skills that will be performed in the sport.
 Gradually increase the intensity of exercise that duplicates movement involved in sport.

Psychological preparation
 Warm up can control anxiety and provide mental imagery and rehearsal.
 Provides optimal preparation for an event.
Types of Stretching
Active stretching
 Where you assume a position and hold it there with no other
assistance apart from using the strength of your agonist muscles.
 E.g. bringing your leg up high and then holding it there without
anything other than your leg muscles to keep the leg in that
extended position.
 Active stretching increasing flexibility and strengthens the agonist
muscles.
 They are usually quite difficult to hold and maintain for more than 10 seconds.

Passive stretching
 Where you assume a position and hold it with some other part of
your body, or with the assistance of a partner or apparatus.
 E.g. bringing your leg up high and then a partner holds it there with
their hand.
 Useful in relieving spasms in muscles that are healing after an injury.
 A technique in which you are relaxed and make no contribution to
the range of motion. Instead, an external force is created by an
outside agent, either manually or mechanically.
 Good for cooling down after a workout.
Types of Stretching
Static stretching
 Involves holding a position – you stretch to the farthest point and hold the stretch.
 Static stretching involves the resistance of the muscle groups through isometric
contractions of the stretched muscles.
 One of the fastest ways to increase flexibility and is more effective than any other
type of stretching.
 Decrease the amount of pain usually associated with stretching.
 Can use a partner, yourself or apparatus to stretch to farthest point.

Ballistic stretching
 Uses the momentum of a moving body or a limb in an attempt to force it beyond its normal
range of motion.
 Stretching by bouncing into and out of a stretched position, using the stretched
muscles as a spring which pulls you out of the stretched position.
 Not considered useful and can lead to injury.
 May cause muscles to tighten up due to the stretch reflex.

 All stretching should be kept sport-specific. You should concentrate on the

range of motions and muscle groups used in the activity.
Cooling Down
Cooling down should consist of:
 Stop exercising and walk around to allow heart rate to decrease.
 5-10 minutes jogging/walking which will decrease body temperature and remove
waste products from working muscles.
 5-10 minutes of static stretching exercises, which will decrease body temperature,
remove waste products from the working muscles and help to increase range of
movement.

Benefits of a cool-down:
 Aid in dissipation of waste products (lactic acid)
 Reduce the potential for delayed muscle soreness (DOMS) that often accompanies
strenuous workouts.
 Reduce the chance of dizziness or fainting caused by blood pooling.
 Reduce the level of adrenaline in the blood.
 Allow the heart to return to its resting rate.
 Training Methods
Method Description
Continuous •Develops stamina and endurance e.g. continuous running, swimming, rowing or cycling.
•Intensity needs to be hard but not too hard – effort needs to be maintained for a considerable period.
•Sufficient exercise to raise heart rate to about 130-140 bpm.
•70% of maximum heart rate – aerobic training zone.
Intermittent •Involves alternating periods of effort and recovery so that the body may be exposed to a greater total workload than it
could manage during a continuous training programme.
•By adjusting the FITT principle, there is a variety of possible sessions.
•Develops speed and endurance.
Circuit •Involves a circuit of exercises performed one after the other at a station.
•They can be established to cover every aspect of fitness, or one specific aspect of fitness.
•The number of work stations, the number of repetitions and the length of the rest interval can be adjusted to suit the
performers.
Weight •Increases strength and muscular endurance.
•Works out a whole range of muscles in a short amount of time.
•Machines can isolate muscle groups.
Plyometric •A form of power training that involves powerful muscular contractions in response to a rapid stretching of the muscles –
often called ‘loading’.
•The faster and greater the load, the more forceful the contraction
•Activates the stretch reflex - produces a more forceful contraction than a normal concentric contraction.
•Very intense and strenuous, can cause injury.

Mobility •During pre-workout warm up period.

•Prepares body for vigorous movements.
•Stimulate nervous system, muscles, tendons and joints in a dynamic manner.
•‘swinging’ exercises.