Mass Communication

ECO-306

Sami Ullah
Department of Economics
Faculty of Contemporary Studies
National Defense University, Pakistan
 Lecture 5

Theories of Mass
Communication
 Agenda setting theory (Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)

 The influence of media affects the presentation of the reports and issues made in the
news that affects the public mind.
 The news reports make it in a way that when a particular news report is given
importance and attention than other news the audience will automatically perceive it as
the most important news and information are given to them.
 The priorities of which news comes first and then the next are set by the media
according to how people think and how much influence will it have among the
audience.
 Agenda setting theory (Maxwell
McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)
 Agenda setting occurs through a cognitive process known as “accessibility”. Media
provides information which is the most relevant food for thought, portraits the
major issues of the society and reflects people minds.
 These are the levels of agenda setting theory:
 First Level:
 The first level is usually used by the researchers to study media uses and its
objectives or the influences that media creates on people and the most proximal
thought that people will have on the exposure to the information given by media
house.
 Second level:
 At the second level, the media focuses on how people should think about the nature
of the issues. Thus, sensationalization of news reports may happen to bring in the
interest of the audience. In fact, media wants to grab attention and implant thoughts
in people minds about some serious issues. That’s why media turn certain issues
viral.
 Agenda setting theory (Maxwell
McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)
 Agenda setting theory is used in a political ad, campaigns, business news, PR
(public relation) etc. The main concept associated with the theory is
gatekeeping.
 Gatekeeping is in charge of and has control of the selection of content
discussed in the media. It is assumed that the public cares mostly about the
product of a media gatekeeping. Editors are the main gatekeepers of media
itself. The news media decides ‘what’ events to broadcast and show through
the media ‘gates’ on the basis of ‘newsworthiness’.
 For e.g.: News Comes from various sources, editors choose what should appear
and what should not that’s why they are called as gatekeepers.
 Gatekeepers are the powerful authority who ensure the right material is
disseminated to mass. Because some issues are important to media but not to
masses. Also they are much concern on not to distort peace and public stability.
Agenda setting theory (Maxwell McCombs and Donald
L. Shaw)
 Priming
 The responsibility of the media in proposing the values and standards through which the objects gain a certain amount
of attention can be judged. The media’s content will provide a sufficient amount of time and space to certain issues,
making it more vivid.
 In simple words, the media gives the utmost importance to a certain event such that it gives people the impression that
that particular news is the most important one. This is done on a daily basis. The selected news report is carried on as a
heading or covered regularly for months. For example, terms such as headlines, special news features, discussions,
expert opinions are used. Media primes news by repeating the news and giving it more importance like, for example,
Nuclear Deal.
 Framing
 Framing is a process of selective control. It has two meanings.
 The way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized within the same frame of reference.
 Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar way. This is how people attach importance to
a piece of news and perceive its context within which an issue is viewed.
 Framing deals with how people attach importance to certain news. For example, in the case of an attack, defeat, win and
loss, the media frames the news in such a way that people perceive from a different angle.
 We can take the Kargil War between India and Pakistan as an example. In both the countries, the news reports were
framed in such a way they show their own country in a positive light and the other in the negative. So depending on
which media people have access to, their perception will differ.
Agenda setting theory (Maxwell
McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)
 Factors affecting Agenda setting
 Gatekeepers, editors and managers and other external influences.
 Non-media sources like government officials and influential
personnel.
 For example “if the media has close relationship with the elite
society, that class will probably affect the media agenda and the
public agenda in turn”
Normative Theories – Four Theories of the Press

 Normative theories were first proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur
Schramm in their book called “Four Theories of the Press”. At first the word
“Normative Theory” was pronounced in USA during the height of ‘cold war’ with
communism and soviet. Often it called as western theories of mass media.
 A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be controlled and
operated by the government, authority, leader and public. These theories are basically
different from other communication theories because normative theories of press are
not providing any scientific explanations or prediction. At the same these “four
theories of the press” were came from many sources rather than a single source.
Sometimes media practitioners, social critics and academics also involved to develop
these normative theories
 Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and the
Government than press and the audience. These theories are more concern about the
ownership of the media and who controls the press or media in the country.
 Authoritarian theory
 Libertarian theory
 Social responsibility theory
 Soviet media theory
Authoritarian Theory

 Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of communications are under the
control of the governing elite or authorities or influential bureaucrats.
 Authoritarians are necessary to control the media to protect and prevent the
people from the national threats through any form communication
(information or news).
 The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler’s power in the country rather
than any threats. The authorities have all rights to permit any media and
control it by providing license to the media and make certain censorship.
 If any media violate the government policies against license, then the
authority has all right to cancel the license and revoke it.
 The government have all right to restrict any sensitive issues from press to
maintain peace and security in the nation
Authoritarian Theory
 Censorship:
Censorship is a suppression of any communication which may consider as harmful to the people,
King, government and its nation. Especially these censorship methods are much familiar in press
which against the freedom of speech and freedom of expression. In some other cases, the
censorship helps to protect the rulers and authorities from sensitive issues.
 There are different types of censors like
 Political censor
 Moral censor
 Religious censor
 Military censor
 Corporate censor
 Examples
 Dictatorship – During the world war II Hitler and Mussolini are the two major authorities who
controlled the press in Germany and Italy. Press was under the control of the authority and No
press can’t question against or publish against these two dictators.
 Libertarian Theory
 The theory which is originally came from libertarian thoughts from 16th
century in Europe. The libertarian theorists are against the authoritarian
thoughts. International trade and urbanization undermine the power of a
rural aristocracy which leads various social movements raise includes the
Protestants reformation, that demands individual’s freedom and their own
lives and free thoughts. Liberalism means information is knowledge and
knowledge is power. Libertarianism is free from any authority or any
control or censorship. The libertarianism is an idea of individualism and
limited government which is not harmful to another.

 Libertarian theory sees people are more enough to find and judge good
ideas from bad. The theory says people are rational and their rational
thoughts lead them to find out what are good and bad. The press should
not restrict anything even a negative content may give knowledge and can
make better decision whilst worst situation. The libertarian thoughts are
exactly against or opposite to the authoritarian theory which means the
authoritarian theory says “all forms of communication works under the
control of government or elite like king”
Libertarian Theory
 Strength and Weakness:
 Freedom of press will give more freedom to media to reveal the real thing
happening in the society without any censorship or any authority blockades.
 Is reliable with U.S media traditions.
 It gives more values for individuals to express their thoughts in media.
 Theory excessively positive about media’s willing to meet responsibilities
which may leads people into negative aspects.
 Is too positive about individual ethics and rationality.
 Ignores need for reasonable control of media.
 Ignores dilemmas posed by conflicting freedoms.
 Example:
 Wiki leaks website published all sorts of confidential or restricted files in
public space and especially classified documents. These articles are
providing brief knowledge about the government and its activities which
helps people to identify what is happening in the society and its gives great
choices to elect a better president in future.
 Sometimes these documents may work against the government and its
authority that is why most of the country is not willing to allow libertarian
thoughts because it may affect their power and kingdom
Social Responsibility Theory
 Introduction: In mid 20th century most of the developing countries and third
world nations have used this social responsibility theory of press which is
associated with “the Commission of the Freedom of Press” in United States at
1949. In the book “Four theories of Press” (Siebert, Peterson and Schramm) it’s
been stated that “pure libertarianism is antiquated, out dated and obsolete.”
That paved way for replacement of Libertarian theory with the Social
responsibility theory.
 Social Responsibility Theory:
 Social responsibility theory allows free press without any censorship but at the
same time the content of the press should be discussed in public panel and
media should accept any obligation from public interference or professional
self regulations or both. The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and
libertarian theory because it gives total media freedom in one hand but the
external controls in other hand. Here, the press ownership is private. The
social responsibility theory moves beyond the simple “Objective” reporting
(facts reporting) to “Interpretative” reporting (investigative reporting). The
total news is complete facts and truthful but the commission of the freedom
press stated that “No longer giving facts truthfully rather than give a necessary
analyzed or interpretative report on facts with clear explanations”.
 Social Responsibility Theory
 The theory helped in creating professionalism in media by setting up a high level
of accuracy, truth, and information. The commission of press council also
included some tasks based on social responsibility of media, which are as
follows:
 Formulate the code of conduct for the press.
 Improve the standards of journalism.
 Safeguarding the interests of journalism and journalist.
 Criticize and make some penalty for violating the code of conduct.
 The theory allows
 Everyone to say something or express their opinion about the media.
 Community opinion, Consumer action and professional ethics.
 Serious invasion of recognized private rights and vital social interests.
 Private ownership in media may give better public service unless government
has to take over to assure the public to provide better media service.
 Media must take care of social responsibility and if they do not, government or
Soviet Media Theory

 Introduction:
 After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with new political
system based on the Marxist-Leninist principles. The newly formed communist party by
Lenin shows much interest in the media which serves to the working class in the
country and their welfares. So the Soviet originates a theory from Marxist, Leninist and
Stalinist thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology is called
“Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist Media Theory”. The same
theory was developed and followed by Adolf Hitler’s Nazi in Germany and Benito
Mussolini in Italy.
 Soviet Media Theory:
 Soviet media theory is imitative of Leninist principles which based on the Carl Marx and
Engel’s ideology. The government undertake or controls the total media and
communication to serve working classes and their interest. Theory says the state have
absolute power to control any media for the benefits of people. They put end to the
private ownership of the press and other media. The government media provide
positive thoughts to create a strong socialized society as well as providing information,
education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization. The theory describe the whole
purpose of the mass media is to educate the greater masses of working class or
workers. Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which would able to create
interests towards the media.
Soviet Media Theory
 According to authoritarian theory, the media controlled and censored by the
ministries in the country but libertarian is fully free without any intervention
of any authority or government, Social responsibility theory – press freedom
in one hand but other hand they controlled the press by raising question and
Soviet media theory, the whole control of the media is under the leader of
the nation.
 Soviet media theory looks similar like authoritarian theory but the core part
is different from each other. In authoritarian theory is a one way
communication, there is no feedback allowed from the public but in Soviet
media theory is a two way communication at the same time the whole media
is controlled or works under the leadership.
 Private ownership is not allowed which leads the press without any
restriction and it can serve people without any authoritative blockades.
 Soviet media theory allows some restriction based on the nation interest
rather than personal.
 Under communist theories like soviet media theory, the journalist or press
should support the leadership rather than a watchdog.
 Gate Keeping Theory
 Kurt Zadek Lewin (1890-1947), Kurt Lewin coins the word called “Gate
keeping”. It’s nothing but to block unwanted or useless things by using a
gate. Here the person who make a decision is called “Gatekeeper”. At
first it is widely used in the field of psychology and later it occupies the
field of communication. Now it’s one of the essential theories in
communication studies.
 The Gatekeeper decides what information should move to group or
individual and what information should not. Here, the gatekeeper are the
decision makers who letting the whole social system. The gatekeeper is
having its own influence like social, cultural, ethical and political. Based
on personal or social influences they let the information to the group.
Through this process the unwanted, sensible and controversial
information’s are removed by the gate keeper which helps to control the
society or a group and letting them in a right path. In home mother plays
the vital role and she has to decide what their kid’s needs and what
should avoid.
 Gate Keeping Theory
 In news medium editor play vital role. He has to decide what kind of news
items will publish and what should not. Every day the news channel receives
various news items from all over the world. The channel have its own ethics
and policies through this the editor decide the news items for publish or aired.
In some cases few news items are rejected by the editor due the organizations
policy or the news items which are not suitable for publish.

 A news channel can’t show all those news items to audience because it may affect
the channel reputation in public and organizations policy.

 Here, editor decides the news items especially he can’t show the Texas bull
fighting because it is not internationally popular story. But the same time the news
channel can’t show the religious abuses also because it may hurt audience directly
and it may affect organizations policy also.

 But international terror issues and UN discussions are universal common news that
won’t affect the channel reputation in public and organizations policy.
 News items:
 N1: Texas bull fighting, N2: International terror issues, N3: UN
discussions, N4: religious abuse on international community
 Gatekeeper:
 Chief Editor
 Selected News Items:
 N2: International terror issues, N3: UN discussions,
 Discarded News Items: (on popularity)
 N1: Texas bull fighting
 Discarded News Items: (on policy)
 N4: Religious abuse on International community
Knowledge Gap Theory
 This theory was first proposed in 1970 by Philip J Tichenor, George
A. Donohue and N Olien
 They defined the Knowledge Gap theory, “as the infusion of mass
media information into a social system increases higher
socioeconomic status segments tend to acquire this information
faster than lower socioeconomic status population segments.
Hence the gap in knowledge between the two tends to increase
rather than decrease.” In simple words , as the access to mass
media increases those particular segments of population inevitable
gain information faster and hence the wide gap increases with the
lower economic status of the population. The world is yet to see
the complete effect of the new technologies but as the globe turns
out more technological and the expense rises, it more goes out of
the league of the poor. As a result the knowledge gap also widens
and the people of the higher economic class gain the benefits
more. If the Information services are not made equal for the entire
society, this gap of information will increase over the years.
Knowledge Gap Theory
 In this theory knowledge is treated as any other commodity which is not distributed equally
throughout the society and the people at the top of the ladder has more easy access to it.
This theory was used in the presidential election and it is was seen that when a new idea
invades in the society, the people of the higher strata understand it better and hence the
gap expands. But, events such as debates, free talks may help to reduce this gap.
 Few reasons have been stated of why this pattern of gap exist
 1. Communication Skills– As a person receives more education, his communication skill
increases and hence gathering information becomes easier for him. Along with this reading,
understanding mad memory skills also become better and thus he understands the issues of
various spheres better.
 2. Stored information– Via classrooms, textbooks, discussions, educated person is
exposed to much more topics than a less educated person and hence his awareness is more.
 3. Relevant Social Contact– A person with more education has more social integration.
This helps him to counter various perspectives, diverse stories etc which makes his
understanding of public issues better.
 4. Selective Exposure– An educated person knows well of how to use optimum use of a
medium while on the other hand a person with no knowledge is unlikely to know it. Hence
he will be less aware of the issues around the world and less interested and may not also
know of how it may affect him.
 5. Media Target Markets– For every product, news or any commodity a certain segment is
targeted and it is usually the higher strata of the society who is targeted and hence the
lower strata remains unaware.
Knowledge Gap Theory
 Ways of Reducing the Gap
 George A. Donohue and his other colleagues by the end of 1975
came up with three variables after a survey on local and national
issues, which will help to reduce the gap and that failed this theory
upto a certain extent.
 Impact of local issues– It was seen that local issues that directly
impacted the people had aroused more of social concern than
national issues that did not have such a great impact and hence in
these issues widened gap could be reduced.
 Level of social conflict surrounding the issue– Until a
communication breakdown, issues with more perceived conflict
tends to grab more attention and weakening the knowledge gap
hypothesis.
 Homogeneity of the community– If it is a homogeneous
community, the gap tends to be lesser than a wider heterogeneous
community.
Limited Effects Theory

 The Limited effects theory was proposed by Austrian–American sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld.
The theory states that even if there is an effect created by the media on the thoughts and
opinions of individuals; this effect is minimal at best or limited.
 Beginnings of the Theory – US Presidential Elections 1940
 Paul Lazarsfeld systematic and empirical study of US voters enabled him to classify them into
three categories: converts, wavers and crystallizers. His findings showed that interpersonal
influence was much stronger than that of the mass media. This realization helped him
conceive and later develop the ‘Limited Effects Theory.’
 The main players in this theory are a) Media b) Gate Keepers c) Opinion Leaders c) Opinion
Followers. The flow of information moves in this above order and gets massively filtered and
reinterpreted by the time it reaches the opinion follower.
 Lazarsfeld credits the elite high and educated class to be the primary gatekeepers and
consumers of media whose biases affect how and what information gets redistributed among
those who consume media at much lower levels. Opinion leaders especially lessened or
mitigated media effects through their discussions and interpretations of mass media messages
with their peers.
 By the time adulthood is reached, people have their own perceptions and opinions that are
independent of the media. Therefore, their peers and social institutions in general influence
people more. The influence of opinion leaders in particular far outweighs that of the media.
 Further support for their limited effects paradigm was provided by other studies about the
effects of the media. For example, in one study by Carl Hovland, he found that soldiers, who
viewed motivational/training films during a series of controlled experiments, were not
affected by what they viewed. Rather at an individual level, there were various independent
factors (mediating/ intervening variables) that affected their attitudes or motivation levels.
MAGIC BULLET OR HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY OF
COMMUNICATION

 The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head
without their own knowledge. The message cause the instant
reaction from the audience mind without any hesitation is called
“Magic Bullet Theory”. The media (needle) injects the message into
audience mind and it cause changes in audience behavior and psyche
towards the message. Audience are passive and they can’t resist the
media message is called “Hypodermic Needle Theory”.
 Both theories are deals with impact of media messages in audience
mind and how audience react towards the message without any
hesitation.
 Example :
 In 1930, Newly formed mercury theater and Orson Wells join
together and created a fake news bulletin about aliens invasion in
american city called Grover’s Mill, New jersey. They broadcast this
news bulletin in between the radio program called “The War of the
Worlds”. The “Panic Broadcast” was reached merely 12 million
American people and one million were seriously believed. Due to this
broadcast the whole country was in chaos
MAGIC BULLET OR HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY OF
COMMUNICATION

 Study :
 The magic bullet theory is based on assumption of human nature
and it was not based on any empirical findings from research. Few
media scholars do not accepting this model because it’s based on
assumption rather than any scientific evidence. In 1938, Lazarsfeld
and Herta Herzog testified the hypodermic needle theory in a radio
broadcast “The War of the Worlds” (a famous comic program) by
insert a news bulletin which made a widespread reaction and panic
among the American Mass audience. Through this investigation he
found the media messages may affect or may not affect audience.
 “People’s Choice” a study conducted by Lazarsfeld in 1940 about
Franklin D. Roosevelt election campaign and the effects of media
messages. Through this study Lazarsfeld disproved the Magic Bullet
theory and added audience are more influential in interpersonal
than a media messages
Media Dependency Theory
 Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur proposed the “Dependency
theory” in 1976. The theory is combined with several perspectives
like psycho analytics & social system theory, systematic & casual
approach and base elements from Uses and Gratification theory but
less focus on effects. Media Dependency theory is one of the
theories, first of its kind which regards audience as an active part in
communication process. The dependency theory is expanded from
the theory of US
 According to this theory, there is an internal link between media,
audience and large social system. The audience learning from the
real life is limited, so they can use media to get more information to
fulfil their needs. An extensive use of media generates dependent
relation in audience. Also Media can able to create dependence
relationship with target audiences to achieve their goals by using its
media power.
Media Dependency Theory

 The degree of dependence is directly proportional to:

 Individual: The media have ability to satisfy the audience needs.
An individual will become more dependent on media, if the
medium satisfy his/her needs. Otherwise the media dependence
will become less
 Social Stability: The audience reconsider their beliefs, practice
and behaviours when strong social change, conflicts, riot or
election which will force to re-evaluate and make new decisions.
During this period media dependency is dramatically increased,
because there is a strong need for information, support and advice
 Active audience: In this communication process, the active
audience chooses the media dependence on their individual needs
and other factors such as economic conditions, society and
culture. If alternative source fulfil the audience needs, then it will
reciprocally decrease the media dependence
Media Dependency Theory

 Process of Creating Dependence:

 Media attracts individuals by offering the content
which is able to fulfil the audience needs for
understanding, entertainment and information
 There is much difference in the level of strength in
Dependence relationship. Cognitive motivations
encourage the individuals to maintain the level of
attention and Affective motivation serves the
individuals to enhance the level of satisfaction
uses and gratification theory
 The Uses and Gratification theory discusses the effects of the media
on people. It explains how people use the media for their own need
and get satisfied when their needs are fulfilled. In other words, it can
be said that the theory argues what people do with media rather than
what media does to people. Also, this theory is in contradiction to the
Magic Bullet theory, which states that the audience is passive. This
theory has a user/audience-centered approach. Even for
communication, say – interpersonal, people refer to the media for the
topic to discuss among themselves. By referring the media, they gain
more knowledge and exposure to the world beyond their limited
eyesight.
 There are several needs and gratification for people. They are
categorized into five needs.
 Cognitive needs
 Affective needs
 Personal Integrative needs
 Social Integrative needs
 Tension free needs
uses and gratification theory

 Cognitive needs:
 People use media for acquiring knowledge, information, facts, etc.
Among the audience, some have the thirst to acquire intellectual and
academic knowledge. This is not a very common phenomenon.
Different people have different needs. For example, quiz programs on
television give on factual knowledge; to know about current affairs
people need to watch the news regularly; search engines on the
internet are also very popular since people can browse for any topic
easily under the run with no time restriction.
 Affective needs:
 It includes all kinds of emotions, pleasure and moods of the people.
People use media; say television, to satisfy their emotional needs.
 The best example would be when people get emotional or sometimes
even they cry for a sad scene while watching the movie/soap opera.
uses and gratification theory
 Personal Integrative needs:
 This is the self-esteem need. People use media to reassure their status, gain
credibility and stabilize. So people watch television and assure themselves that
they have a respectable status in society. For example, people watch
advertisements in the media like jewellery ads, furniture ads, apparel ads, etc.
and buy these products so that they can change their lifestyle. Hence the
media helps them to do so.
 Social Integrative needs:
 It encompasses the need to socialize with family, friends and relations in
society. For social interaction nowadays, people do not seem to gather socially
during weekends instead they have turned to social networking sites on the
internet such as Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr etc. to satisfy their needs.
 Another example is people may start watching a particular programme, not
because they have any self interest, but because their neighbour/friend
watches it such that both the parties may have something in common to
discuss.
 Tension free needs:
 People sometimes use the media as a means to escapism from the real world
and to relieve from tension and stress.
 For example, people tend to relax while watching television, listening to the
radio, surfing the internet, etc. In fact, media has the power to grab audience
mind since it makes them feel connected with the situation and characters
emotionally.
Two Step Flow Theory
 In 1944 Paul Lazarsfeld, (1901-1976) an American Social Researcher,
Bernard Berelson (1912 – 1979) and Hazel Gaudet was introduced
The Two-Step Flow of Communication in the book called “The
people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential
campaign
 The purpose of the study was focused on Presidential election
Campaign and the people decision-making process towards the
campaign. All three researchers were wanted to find out practically
whether the mass media messages affect direct influence in voting
decision among the people. Unexpectedly they found the media
messages (like radio and newspapers) are very less influence then
an informal, personal communication on voting behavior. Based on
this researched data,
Opinion Leader:
Opinion Leader is a leader for a certain group who
gives details and information to lesser active
persons in the group. In office, the managing
director is an opinion leader and in public, a
political leader is an opinion leader. They interpret
the information to their own group. But one thing
the Opinion leader is a leader only for their own
group not for all.
 Two Step Flow Theory

 In Public, Political leader is an opinion leader. Here few people are not influenced by the leader
and their political views and thought. These people won’t support opinion leaders and isolated
from the population.
 Katz and Paul seems “the flow of media messages from radio and print to opinion leaders and
then the leaders leads the messages to lesser active users in the population”. Through this
transformation of message, the leaders may add their opinion on the actual content which may
affects the low active users. In some cases the Opinion leaders are filtering the actual content
ensures the information is needed by the people. Mostly the opinion leaders are selective and
they pass the messages to the group. (Low-end media users: Poor, Worker and People who are
not affordable for getting information directly).
 Note: The Opinion leaders have enough voice only in structured social groups not in an isolated
individual in the population.
 Example:
 Carol watching News in ANB Channel they flash the headlines with “Research reveals some toys
are leads the children’s aggressive and Violent”. That day Carol calls her little son and went for
shopping and carol warn her son some toys are not good and made skin allergy which leads her
son to avoid those toys.
 Opinion leader: Mom
 Audience: Her Son
 Added information in actual content: Skin Allergy
 The Spiral of Silence Theory
 Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, the German political scientist contributes the
famous model called “Spiral of Silence”
 The one view dominated the public scene and others disappeared from
the public awareness as it adherents became silent. In other words, the
people fear of separation or isolation those around them, they tend to
keep their attitudes to themselves when they think they are in the
minority. This process is called “Spiral of Silence”.
The Spiral of Silence Theory
 Example:
 In a company, the managing director decides to increase their
working hour from 8 to 10 and send e-mail to all employees.
Majority of them accept this time changes and few employees
are not satisfied with his decision. But they cannot or ready to
express their thought publicly.
 Because
 1. They may feel unsupported by the other employees.
 2. “Fear of isolation” like transfer
 3. “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from
the public will help to avoid fight.
 4. They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid
personal statement in public.
The Spiral of Silence Theory

 Advantages and Disadvantages:

 1. Spiral of Silence theory has both micro level and macro
level explanatory process.
 2. It works well during the public campaign, Senate and
Parliament.
 3. Spiral of silence theory – which helps to raise question
about considering the role and responsibility of media in the
society.
 4. The theory which is not considering the other explanation
of silencing. In some cases the person may feel the majority’s
ideas or opinion is much better than his own view.
 5. It portrait overly negative view of media influence the
average people
Reception Theory
 Stuart Hall developed reception theory, popularly known as Audience
Theory or reader’s reception theory, in 1973. His essay ‘Encoding and
Decoding Television Discourse’ focuses on the encoding and decoding of
the content given to the audience no matter the form of media such as
magazines/papers, television/radios, games. Today theorists who do
the analysis of media through reception theory often derive results
from the experience of an audience created by watching a cinema,
game or books.
Reception Theory
 The reception theory concept points out that, a movie, book, or game events though it has none/some
inherent meaning, the audience who watch them or experience it make a meaning. The audience comes
into an understanding of the happenings of the text or screen.
 The audience receives the creative work done and perceives to its content in either similar or different.
The meaning of the message can change in the way they see it fit according to their social context.
 Encoding – The encoded messages usually contains shared rules and symbols common with other people. So
the (encoder) sender has to think how the receiver will perceive the message.
 Decoding – Decoding would be a successful deliver only if the message sent by the encoder is understood
completely to its content as it was intended.
 The messages sent with verbal/non-verbal cues and gestures don’t bring the same result always as
intended by the sender, bringing an altogether different meaning an insight to the concept sent. Thus, the
distortion occurs when the audience cannot understand the concept of having a different take on the
conclusion itself. Such distortion can be because of the age, gender, religion, race, political views,
ethnicity, class, culture and the mood in which the audience receive the message etc.,
 It is difficult to gather the information necessary to analyze every single audience’s experience belongs to
a mass. So the media houses and other social handles come in a useful tool to reach the bigger mass as to
get to know their experience and understanding.
 Press releases, other forms of publicity such as advertisements, the fan letters, celebrity words, fan
message boards, reviews, serve as useful materials for the analysts to see how the reception has been.
 Here the perceiving of the work can scope in three categories:
 Dominant Reader
 Negotiated Reader
 Oppositional Reader
Reception Theory
 Dominant Reader
 They are the audience who take in the work as given by the director which no extra notes
attached. Example, Teacher asking the student to submit their assignments or parent implying
on the child to clean their room is a direct message. The child understands the messages
properly and it is followed by the child. In the Harry Potter Series, Lord Voldemort is a bad
guy, and how have the media producers have conveyed it with a bald head, black cloak,
sunken eyes, cold and cruel voice, and threatening presence to his surroundings.
 Negotiated Reader
 The negotiated reading here is the audiences who thought they know and are aware of the
acts made in the film are bad and not right but get on to accept that it is fine because there
is a reason behind it. Thus accepting the author’s message even though it goes against the
audiences’ personal convictions. For example, many video games/comics has contents are
against our personal views but we still read, enjoy and accept the content given the situation
depicted on it for example fictions like zombie hunting, etc.
 Oppositional Reader
 The audience has none acceptance for the author’s takes on the concept of the film or the
subject it handled. It can be morally wrong, emotionally disturbing, unnecessary adult
contents of violence and blood gore, religious belief, political outlooks etc., which will make
the audience, reject the idea. For example, in 1970-1980 was an era in Indian Films they
showed smoking as a sign of prestige, image, wealth, power and flourishing happiness
whereas, the reality states otherwise, for it causes cancer. And the pleasant sense of smoking
is nothing more than juxtaposed where in reality is an unpleasant smell and is perceived as a
Reception Theory

 Conclusion
 Reception theory is far more complex in understanding
as each mind perceives in its own way. A single person
can have a mixed reaction of being a dominant,
oppositional, and negotiated reader when they are
going through the process of receiving the message. The
content producer cannot take/judge for every single
individual perspective. The conclusion taken by the
audience which was/is/will be right for and their
perspectives will change as when the time goes by and
will feel just right for the conclusion derived at that
moment.