Meat ,poultry and fish science and Technology

MEAT PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY

TARIKU
E.G
 Outlines

• Background
• Course objectives, References, Teaching methods and Evaluation
• Introduction
• Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat
• Meat quality
• Basic techniques in further processing of meat
• Sanitation and hygiene in meat processing facilities
• Poultry processing technology
• Fish processing technology

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 Course objectives

• Objectives:
– At the end of this course, students will be able to:
• Realize the basic methods and applications of meat, poultry and fish and their
products in the context of food production
• Understand the chemical composition and nutritional values of meat, poultry
and fish
• Explain major quality parameters of meat and factors for quality deterioration
• Explain and implement the hygienic handling of meat, poultry and fish products
and inspect quality
• Identify basics of physical and chemical preservations meat, poultry and fish and
their products
• Prepare processed meat, poultry and fish-based products
• Manage cold chains during processing, distribution and marketing

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 References

• Kerry,J. Kerry, J. and Ledward, D. (eds.) ( 2002). Meat processing: Improving quality.
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Angton Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH, England.
• FAO, 1990. Manual on simple methods of meat preservation. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
• Gunter Heinz and Peter Hautzinger, 2007. Meat processing technology for small to medium
scale producers. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Bangkok.
• Shai Barbut, 2002. Poultry Products Processing: An industry guide, Department of Animal
and Poultry Science University of Guelph, CRC press.
• UNIFEM, 1998. Fish processing. Food cycle technology source book No. 4. The United
Nations Development Fund for Women and Intermediate Technology Development Group,
United Kingdom.
• Devlieghere, F. (2006/2007). Technology of fish and fishery products. Unpublished teaching
material, Department of food safety and food quality Gent University, Belgium.

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 Teaching Methods and Evaluation

• Teaching Methods:
– Lecture
– Group work/Assignment/Presentation
– Practical works
• Evaluation:
– Assignment …………..………………….……….…………..20%
– Test………………………………………………………..……20%
– Quiz ………………………………………………………..…..5%
– Final exam……………………………………………….…….50%

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 1. Introduction

• Humans appear to be adapted to an omnivorous diet, based on the

shape of their teeth and unspecialized gut
• Consumption of meat and meat products has a long history in most
cultures
• Originally meat has been scavenged from the kills of effective
predators, until hunting techniques developed
• The domestication of animals and the development of animal
husbandry ensured a more reliable source of meat
– Include: domesticated cattle, hogs, sheep, goats and poultry and wild life such
as deer, rabbit, and fish
• Cattle, sheep, pigs = red meat, poultry = white meat

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 Introduction … Definition and sources of meat

• What is meat?
– the edible post-mortem component originating from live animals
• The principal sources of meat are:
– Cattle (beef), calf (veal), hogs (ham, pork, bacon), sheep (mutton), young sheep (lamb)
– Other societies consume dogs, kangaroos, reindeer, reptiles
• Animal by-products:
– animal intestine
– fat which is rendered in tallow and lard
– hides and wool
– bones and blood
– gelatin, enzymes and hormones

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 Introduction … Meat production and consumption

• Meat consumption in developing countries has been continuously

increasing:
– annual per capita consumption of 10 kg in the 1960s
– 26 kg in 2000 and
– will reach 37 kg around the year 2030
• Meat and other animal foods are better sources of protein than
plant foods (except soy bean products)
• In meat, the essential amino acids components of proteins and
which cannot be synthesized in the human
• Plant food has no Vitamin B12
• Animal food, in particular meat, is rich in iron

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Introduction … Meat production and consumption

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Introduction … Meat production and consumption

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Introduction … Meat production and consumption

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Introduction … Meat production and consumption

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 Introduction … Structure of meat and muscle

•The gross structure of a cut meat:

• The dark areas are the principal muscles
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• The white areas are fat
 Introduction … Structure of meat and muscle

•Longitudinal section of lean muscle showing

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• muscle is composed of bundles of hair like muscle fibers
Introduction … Structure of meat and muscle

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 Introduction … Structure of meat and muscle

• Types of muscle
• Meat is composed of three different types of muscles:
1. Skeletal muscle:
- are the most important ones
- are directly or indirectly attached to bone
- facilitate movement (give support to the body)
2. Smooth muscles:
- commonly referred to as visceral muscles
- found through the digestive and reproductive tracts
- also found through out the blood vessels and arteries
3. Cardiac muscles:
- it is exclusively heart muscle

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 Introduction … Chemical composition of meat

a. Proteins
• The nutritional value of meat is essentially related to the content of high quality
protein.
• High quality proteins are characterized by the content of essential aminoacids
• The contractile proteins or myofibrillar proteins are quantitatively the most
important (some 65%) and are also qualitatively important as they the highest
biological value.
• Connective tissues contain mainly collagen, which has a low biological value.
Elastin is completely indigestible. Collagen is digestible but is devoid of the
essential aminoacid tryptophan.
• Blood proteins have a high content of tryptophan but are nevertheless of a lower
biological value than meat due to their deficiency of the essential aminoacid
isoleucine.

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 Introduction … Chemical composition of meat

b. Fats
• Animal fats are principally triglycerides. The major contribution of fat to the diet is
energy or calories. The fat content in the animal carcass varies from 8 to about
20% (the latter only in pork)
• The unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid) are
physiologically and nutritionally important as they are necessary constituents of
cell walls, mitochondria and other intensively active metabolic sites of the living
organism.
• In recent years it has been suggested that a high ratio of unsaturated/saturated
fatty acids in the diet is desirable as this may lower the individual’s susceptibility to
cardiovascular diseases in general, and to coronary heart disease in particular.
There is evidence to indicate that a diet which predominantly contains relatively
saturated fats (such as those of meat) raises the level of cholesterol in the blood.

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 Introduction … Chemical composition of meat

c. Vitamins
• Meat and meat products are excellent sources of the B-complex vitamins
• Plant food has no vitamin B12, hence meat is a good source of this vitamin for
children, as in their organisms deposits of B12 have to be established
• On the other hand, meat is poor in the fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K and
vitamin C. However, internal organs, especially liver and kidney generally
contain an appreciable percentage of vitamin A, C, D, E and K.

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 Introduction … Chemical composition of meat

d. Minerals
• The mineral contents of meat or “ash” include calcium, phosphorus, sodium,
potassium, chlorine, magnesium with the level of each of these minerals above
0.1%, and trace elements such as iron, copper, zinc and many others.
• Blood, liver, kidney, other red organs and to a lesser extent lean meat, in particular
beef are good sources of iron.
• Iron intake is important to combat anaemia, which particularly in developing
countries is still widespread amongst children and pregnant women.
• Iron in meat has a higher bio-availability, better resorption and metabolism than
iron in plant products.

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 Introduction … Chemical composition of meat

Table 1. Typical Percentage compositions of Foods of animal Origin

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Introduction … Chemical composition of meat

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  Ante-mortem Handling and welfare

• The inspector should make sure that,

– all animals presented for slaughter are subjected to ante-mortem inspection
whether on an individual or a lot basis and all records are properly recorded
and kept.
– no animal is slaughtered in an abattoir unless it has been inspected and
approved as suitable for human consumption.
– The inspector has the required training, knowledge, skills and ability to
conduct ante-mortem inspection procedures.
– in cases of undue delays before slaughter, e.g., more than 24 hours, ante-
mortem inspection is repeated.
– animals suspected as being unsafe or unsuitable for human consumption are
identified and handled separately from normal animals in a manner that does
not result in cross-contamination of other animals with food-borne hazards.

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 Anti-mortem Handling and welfare contd…

– an animal has not been treated with antibiotics or chemo-therapeutics (other

than limited wound treatment) within the last 6 days before slaughter.
– in the event of suspicious trade limiting diseases on ante mortem inspection,
the animal are held in isolation, lab samples are collected for confirmation and
appropriate and disease specific disposal and decontamination measures are
applied.
– no animal is slaughtered or dressed in an abattoir unless s/he (the meat
inspector) is present.

• ante-mortem judgment
– Passed for slaughter;
– Passed for slaughter subject to a second ante-mortem inspection
– Passed for slaughter under special conditions “Suspects”

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 Moving livestock to the slaughter hall

• The inspector should make sure that,

– following ante-mortem inspection procedures, each animal is
slaughtered within 24 hrs.
– animals are denied access to feed 12 hrs before slaughter.
– there are sufficient intervention methods that remove mud and other
contaminants from hides and hooves of slaughter animals.
– moving of animals to the slaughter hall is carried out by a trained
person and effective operational procedure and training records are
available inside the abattoir.
– animal welfare issues and the required facilities when moving livestock
to the slaughter hall comply with “Animal Handling Guidelines

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 Stunning

• no animal is slaughtered which has not been rested overnight in the

abattoir lairage
• there are backup systems in case of equipment failures
• animals to be stunned are adequately restrained; and the head of each
animal is securely fastened to avoid unnecessary suffering to the animal.
• if the animal regains consciousness, it is re-stunned before being
slaughtered.
• there are no more than 1 animal in stunning box at each time and animals
are not left in stunning box during breaks.
• the stunning operation is carried out by a trained person
• animal welfare issues and the required facilities during stunning
operations are in compliant with “Animal Handling Guidelines

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 Slaughter/Bleeding

• operators are applying correct shackling and hoisting procedures.

• stunning and bleeding operations of each animal are completed within 60
seconds.
• operators are applying correct incisions when slaughtering/bleeding an animal
(e.g. of incorrect incisions are that only 1 vein and artery or jugular veins, etc
are cut and nerves are not properly severed).
• knives are sharp, two knife systems are in use and sterilizer temperature
records are available at all times (knives should not be wiped “clean” on hides,
pelts or cloths, they should not be laid on floor, hand washbasins or platforms
but instead knives should be frequently washed and sterilized).
• animals are not suffering unnecessary pain and are slaughtered without delay.

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 Slaughter/Bleeding contd…

• slaughter is applied as per the following procedures

– the slaughtering operation is done manually using a sharp stainless steel knife,
– the throat is cut with a knife in only one stroke,
– the slaughter man severs the respiratory tract, esophagus and jugular vein as
close as possible to the head,
– the slaughter knife is sanitized and rinsed before proceeding to the next
animal,
– operators wash their hands and arms in a near by hand washing basin after
slaughtering each animal,
– the animal are completely dead before subsequent operations take place and
– where no stunning is carried out, the animal should not be moved until all
brain reflexes have ceased.

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 2. Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat

• Prior to slaughter, muscle tissue is soft and pliable

• Some time after slaughter (6-24 hours), muscle stiffens and
becomes hard
– Due to loss of extensibility of by myofibril proteins
(actin and myosin)
– It is called rigor mortis – “the stiffness of death”
• Glycolytic cycle starts immediately after slaughter in the muscle
tissue, in which glycogen, the main energy supplier to the muscle,
is broken down to lactic acid
– pH changes from 7 to around 5.5
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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

• Slaughtering and grading – sheep

– A. Fasting (Drift) prior to slaughter
• a 24 hour fast is important:
– Easy pelt removal
– It facilitates evisceration process
– Bright appearance of the carcass
– B. Stunning and slaughter
– Sheep are electronically by:
1. head only: passing 0.5-0.9 A at 50 Hz for 20-30 sec
2. head - to - back or head to front stunning: 1.0-1.5 A at 50 Hz for 4
sec

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Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

head - to - back or head to front stunning

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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

C. Dressing
– There are two methods:
1. Hind quarter - to - head and
2. Head - to – hind quarter by either manual or mechanical
D. Evisceration
– it is done manually
– the skinned eviscerated and washed carcass is then moved
by a mono rail to chill room – 2°C for 36 hr

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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

Hind quarter - to - head Head - to – hind quarter 34

 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

Parts of a sheep carcass

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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

E. Dissection
– Separating into saddles
– Between 12th and 13th ribs
– Fore saddle and hind saddle

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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

2. Slaughtering and grading -

Cattle
A. Fasting (drift) prior to
slaughter
B. Weighing
C. Stunning

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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

D. Sticking

– Insert a knife b/n brisket and jaw at 45° angle

– Used to cut arteries and jugular veins
– Shorten the time for death
1.Blood removal:2. Meat quality: 3.Animal welfare:
E. Electrical stimulation
– Two methods:
• high voltage (> 500 v)
– Expensive
– Workers safety
– More complex
• low voltage (up to 75 v) 38
 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

F. Skinning and dressing Siding

Eviscerating Splitting (sawing)

washing shrouding
– Shrouds:
• Heavy unbleached cloth, immersed in a warm (115-125°F),
mild brine solution (14-18° salimeter)
• Absorb blood, attractive appearance
• Removed after 24 hours chilling
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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

G. Chilling
– Thorough chilling for the first 24 hours is essential

– A desirable temperature for warm carcass is 33°F

– Since a group of warm carcasses will raise the temperature

of the chill room considerably, it is a good practice to lower
the temperature of the room to approximately 5°C before
the carcass moved in.

– A low temperature can cause cold shortening

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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

F. Grading Evaluation includes age; color of lean; external

– Done based on three factors: fat quality and distribution; marbling; shape of
animal carcass; and firmness of the muscle
• Carcass maturity- related and meat texture (coarseness of muscle fiber
to tenderness bundles). So it looks at an evaluation of
• Degree of fat marbling- marbling, maturity, texture, and appearance.
fat deposit
• Muscle firmness- certain Beef grades are according to the grades listed
below. Other meats have different standards
firmness
with fewer categories of grades:
G. Dissection – in to two sides • Prime (Younger)
– Side of beef – half of the • Choice
complex carcass • Select
– Quarter of beef – half of side • Standard
of beef • Commercial (Older)
• Utility
• Cutter 41
• Canner
Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

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Parts of beef carcass
 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

• Beef carcass and

its cuts

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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

• Beef carcass
and its cuts

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Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

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Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

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 Biochemistry and post-mortem physiology of meat contd…

Turkey and chicken carcass and its cuts a/b leg (a=thigh, b= drumstick), c1/c2
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breast meat (c1=breast, c2=filet), d=wing
 3. Meat quality

• Meat inspection: 3 phases of development

– Enough, more reliable and efficient, quality
• What is meat quality?
– The suitability of meat for use in a specified product.
• The major components of meat quality:
A. Technological quality
The quality of meat for further processing
B. Fresh meat quality
the quality of meat for fresh consumption

•
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 Meat quality contd…
• A. Technological quality
– Yield is the main quality parameter
– Quality indicators that can predict yield are:
• pH
• Water holding capacity
• Color
• Fat distribution and fat quality

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 Meat quality contd…

Fig. 5: Compression test1, different water holding capacity of muscles. Left: Sample with low WHC. Right:50
Dark
meat sample with good WHC (less water pressed out)
 Meat quality contd…

• B. Eating quality
– Quality parameters for consumption of fresh meat
• Juiciness
– Feeling of moisture in the mouth
• Flavor
– IMF contributes to flavor, phospholipids gives meaty flavor
• The collagen content and solubility
– A strong protein polymer, influences tenderness
• Sarcomere length
– Eg.: sarcomere length >2 µm, tender meat in pork

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 Meat quality contd…

• Adipose tissue: fat that is stored around

the heart, kidney organs, and in the pelvic
canal areas. (Suet refers to the hard fatty
tissue around the kidneys and other
glandular organs of cattle and sheep.)
• Subcutaneous fat (finish): fat that is visible
after the skin is removed. (This is also
referred to as cover fat. If well trimmed, the
visible fat layer is less apparent.)
• Intermuscular fat: fat between muscles
(also known as seam fat).
• Intramuscular fat: fat within muscles
(marbling)
• Fig. Intermuscular fat (a) (around individual
muscles) and intramuscular fat (b) (inside
muscle tissue)

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 Meat quality contd…
• Activity of proteolytic enzymes
– Aging of meat increases tenderness
– Two enzymes involved: calpains and cathepsins
– Protein structures are degraded beginning with Z-
line
• Eating quality determination:
– Sensorial
– Instrumental

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 Meat quality contd…

• Factors affecting meat quality

– Farm Management
1. Age of animal
2. Management Systems (Farm systems, stress, vaccination programs)
3. Nutrition
– Handling and Slaughter Technique
4. Handling prior to slaughter
5. Slaughter techniques
6. Cold Chain during slaughter
– Storage, Distribution and Display
7. Storage and maintenance of the cold chain during distribution
8. Storage and Display Life
9. Method of display
– Hygiene
10. Hygiene at all stages

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 Meat quality contd…

• Grading scheme for

manufacturing-meat
from cattle/buffaloes

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 Meat quality contd…

Grade Chicken 1 (CH1) Grade Chicken 2 (CH2)

Breast meat Chicken muscle meat with adhering
subcutaneous and intermuscular fat

Grade Chicken 3 (CH3) Chicken skin, Grade Chicken 4 (CH4) Frozen chicken 56MDM in
ground (below: from close range) plastic bags (below: from close range)
 Meat quality contd…
• Post mortem quality problems
A. Dark, firm and dry (DFD) meat
• Results when the pH is higher than normal
• Results when the animal experiences extreme stress or
exercise before slaughter
• Stress and exercise use up animals glycogen
– Less conversion of lactic acid
• DFD meat – pH 6.2 – 6.5 compared with pH 5.5 of
normal

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