Fundamental Concepts

Spin

Protons, neutrons, electrons, and all subatomic

particles possess this property called spin. Just
as the sum of the charges of individual protons
in a nucleus equals the total charge of the
nucleus, so the individual spins of protons and
neutrons also can be summed to yield the net
total spin of the nucleus.
 Magnetic Moments

The nucleus is a tiny spinning top with a north

and south pole, just like a magnet. The nucleus
is said to be a magnetic dipole, and the name
of the magnetism is magnetic moment.
In most materials the magnetic moments of
every nucleus is oriented randomly. That is, if
one nucleus has its spin and therefore its
magnetic moment pointed up, there will be
another nearby nucleus with its spin pointed
down.
This random orientation causes all the spins and
magnetic moments to cancel, so that the net
magnetization (M) in the patient is zero.
If the patient however, is placed in a strong
magnetic field the magnetic field will align
themselves, the patient becomes a magnet,
much as a compass needle aligns itself with the
earth’s magnetic field.
The strong external magnetic field is indicated
by B0. By convention, the B0 field in most
imagers is assigned the z-axis in space. This
allows the B0 field, the z-axis, and the long axis
of the patient to be aligned.
 Precession

Each nucleus in the presence of an external

magnetic field acts as a toy top or gyroscope.
Anyone who has observed a toy top spinning on
a flat surface notices that the top does not just
simply spin in an upright position. Rather, the
axis of spin wobbles in a tiny circle. This wobble
is called Precession.
The magnetic moment of the nucleus does not
simply align itself with the external B0 field, but
it also wobbles about the direction of the
external B0 field lines. This magnetic precession
is caused by an interaction between the
external and the nuclear magnetic fields.
 Precession Frequency

How fast the magnetic moment precesses, that

is, the frequency of precession, is
determined solely by the strength of the
external B0 field and the type of nucleus
involved.
 The relationship is

Ѡ=g x B0

Ѡ – frequency of precession (MHz)

B0 - strength of the external magnetic field (T)
g – is a constant value, called the gyromagnetic
ratio (MHz/T)
This fundamental equation of MRI is called the
Larmor equation, the frequency of precession
is called the Larmor frequency.
 Gyromagnetic Ratio (g)

It is the characteristic of each particular

nucleus.
Isotope Symbol Spin Gyromagnet
Quantum ic Ratio
Number (MHz/T)
Hydrogen 1
H ½ 42.6

Carbon 13
C ½ 10.7

Oxygen 17
O 5/2 5.8

Fluorine 19
F ½ 40.0

Sodium 23
Na 3/2 11.3
Magnesium 25Mg 5/2 2.6

Phosphorus 31P ½ 17.2

Sulphur 33S 3/2 3.3

Iron 57Fe 1/2 1.4

The magnetic moments of individual nuclei tend
to align themselves with the external magnetic
field and adds together to produce a net
magnetization.
Although the individual nuclei precess at a
frequency determined by the larmor
relationship, they are out of phase. Therefore
the net magnetic moment does not precess
in such a situation.
Now we can see how this property of nuclear
magnetism could be useful in analyzing
samples.
Suppose we place a sample of unknown
material in a magnet of known field strength.
If we could somehow determine the larmor
frequency, then by the larmor relationship we
could calculate the gyromagnetic ratio for the
nuclei in the sample.
This would tell us which nuclei are present. The
strength of each signal would indicate the
relative abundance of each nuclear species.
If we could somehow make this determination
at various points in the sample, we could
produce an image of the interior of the sample.
 Resonance

It is the tendency of a system to oscillate

(repetitive variation) with greater amplitude at
some frequencies than at others.
The most efficient transfer of energy between
systems occurs at resonance.
The determination of the larmor frequency of
precession is carried out by making use of the
process called resonance.
Each string of the harp is tuned by its length
and tension to a different musical note or
frequency.
If the fiddler plucks a string that vibrates at the
precise frequency of one of the harp strings,
that harp string and no other will begin to
vibrate and emit sound.
 Resonant Frequency

Every physical system can be made to vibrate,

and each system has a preferred frequency of
vibration. The preferred frequency is the
resonant frequency.
The resonant frequency varies depending on
the field strength of the MRI scanner. At a field
strength of 1.5 tesla, the frequency is
approximately 63 MHz; at 1 tesla, the frequency
is approximately 42 MHZ; at 0.5 tesla, the
frequency is approximately 21 MHz; and at 0.2
tesla, the frequency is approximately 8 MHz.
42.58 MHz/T
For reasonably strong magnetic fields, the
frequency of precession of most nuclei of
interest lies within the radiofrequency band
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
If we irradiate a patient containing a precessing
nuclei with an RF wave with randomly chosen
frequency, then the chances are good that there
will be little effect.
If, however, the frequency of RF exactly
matches the larmor frequency of the
precessing nuclei, then the resonance will occur
and, according to our simple model, the nuclei
will turn upside down, or “flip”.
By absorbing energy from the RF, the nuclei are
energized and are now aligned against the
external magnetic field.
In addition to flipping the nuclei into a higher
energy state aligned against the external
magnetic field, another result occurs. The nuclei
are cause to precess in phase.
That is, they all precess not only at the same
larmor frequency, but also with the same
orientation in space. Symbolically, the net
magnetization vector is now seen to precess.
Before RF transmission the nuclei are said to be
at equilibrium with the external magnetic
field.
Following RF exposure, the are energized or
excited.
The amplitude of the net magnetization
vector at equilibrium is indicated in M0.
Therefore, M0 is the equilibrium
magnetization vector, and its amplitude is
determined by several factors:
The number of the nuclei present, called the
spin density (SD); the gyromagnetic ratio
(g) and the strength of the external
magnetic field (B0)
The larger the M0, the more intense will
be the MRI signal and the brighter the MR
image.
Immediately following RF transmission, the
nuclei are aligned against the B0 in an excited
state.
This nuclear excitation exists only momentarily.
One by one the nuclei flip and return to
alignment with B0. At the same time the phase
coherence that was produced by the RF pulse
fades.
This complex manner of returning to
equilibrium is called relaxation, and the time
required for return is the relaxation time.
During relaxation an RF signal is emitted and
this action is related to the MRI signal used to
make the MR image.
 Free Induction Decay

The MRI signal emitted by the patient during

relaxation is called a free induction decay
(FID).
The FID shows how the signal intensity varies
with time.
If one takes this relationship and performs a
rigorous mathematical exercise called a Fourier
transform.
Fourier transformation converts the
relationship of signal intensity versus time to
signal intensity versus inverse time or frequency
(Hz).
Fourier transform results is an Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectrum.
 NMR spectrum

The vertical axis is signal strength, and the

horizontal axis is frequency. The single sharp
peak is called resonance peak, and it is
centered at the larmor frequency of precession
of the nuclei.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Because hydrogen is so abundant and its

gyromagnetic ratio so high, it has the highest
sensitivity to NMR. Therefore pulsed RF at the
hydrogen larmor frequency is used for MRI.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

In summary, precessing nuclei in an

external magnetic field are detected by
resonance with applied radio frequency
waves.