Introduction to Database Management Systems

Chapter 1 (Part 1st)

Data
• A collection of raw facts is called data.
• The word raw means that the facts have not been processed to get their
exact meaning.
• Data is collected from different sources.
• It is collected for different purposes.
• Data may consist of numbers, characters, symbols or pictures etc.
• Data is a vital resource for any organization.
A resource is anything that is valuable for an organization.
Resources include buildings, furniture, vehicles, machinery and employees.
Examples of Data

• When students get admission in colleges or universities, they have to fill

out an admission form. The form consists of raw facts about the students.
These raw facts are student's name, father name, address etc. The
purpose of collecting' data is to maintain the records of students during
their study period in college or university.
• Different organizations conduct surveys to know the opinion of the people
about their product. In these surveys, people express their ideas and
opinions about different issues. These ideas and opinions of the people
are stored as data. The organizations use this data for the improvement of
their products.
Types of Data
1. Numeric Data
Numeric data consists of numeric digits from 0 to 9 like 10, 245 or —5. The numeric type of
data may either he positive or negative..
2. Alphabetic Data
Alphabetic data consists of alphabetic letters from A to Z, a to z and blank spaces e.g.
"IT Series", "Computer" and "Islam" etc.
3. Alphanumeric Data
Alphanumeric data consists of numeric digits (0 to 9), letters(A to Z) and all special
characters like +, %, and @ etc. like "87%", "$300" and "FM 17".
4. Image Data
This type of data includes charts, graphs, pictures and drawings.
5. Audio Data
Sound is a representation of audio. Audio data includes music, speech or any type
sound.
6. Video Data
Video is a set of full -motion images played at a high speed. Video is used to display
actions and movements.
Information
• The processed data is called information.
• Information is an organized and processed form of data.
• It is more meaningful than data and is used for making decisions.
• Data is used as input for the processing and information is the output of
this processing.

Data Processing Information

Example

• The marks of a student in different subjects is the data. To calculate the

total marks, the marks of different subjects arc used as data and total
marks is the information. Now, to calculate the average marks of the
student, this information will be processed again. In this processing, the
information is used as data and average marks will he the information.
• In colleges and universities, the raw facts about students are stored on
admission forms. If we want to find out a list of all students who live in
Faisalabad, we will apply some processing on this data. This processing
will give us the desired list. This list is a form of processed data and will be
called information.
The difference between data and information
The difference between data and information as follows:
Data
Data consists of unprocessed raw facts.
Data is used as input in the computer.
Data is not meaningful.
Data is normally huge in its volume.
Data is the asset of organizations and is not
available to people for sale.
Data is difficult or even impossible to
reproduce. Suppose Government loses data
of census. It is almost impossible to
reproduce it.
Data is used rarely.
Data is an independent entity.
Data is not used in decision-making,
Information
Information is the processed form of data.
Information is the output of computer.
Information is meaningful.
Information is normally short in volume.
Information is normally available to
people for sale.
Information is easier to reproduce if lost. For
example, if the list of illiterate citizens is lost, it
can be reproduced easily from stored data.
Information is used frequently.
Information depends on data.
Information is very important for decision
making.
Metadata
• Metadata can be defined as data about data.
• It is used to describe properties and characteristics of some other data.
• Metadata describes the size, format and other characteristics of data.

Example
When you create a table, you specify the data type, size, format and other
constraints for entering data in different fields of the table. This is metadata
of the table. It describes the properties of the data to be stored in the table
File Processing System
Traditional or simple file processing is the first computer-based method to
handle business application. In the past, many organizations stored data in
files on tape or disk. The data was managed using file-processing system. In a
typical file processing system, each department in an organization has its
own set of files. The files are designed specially for their own applications.
The records in one file are not related to the records in any other file.
User

Student Processing System

Student File
Disadvantages of File Processing System
1. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency
In file processing system, the same data may be duplicated in several files.
Suppose there are two files "Students" and "Library". The file "Students"
contains the Roll No, name, address and telephone number and other details
of all students in a college. The file "Library contains the Roll No and name of
those students who get a book from library along with the information about
the rented books. The data of one student appears in two files. This is known
as data redundancy. This redundancy causes higher storage.
This situation can also result in data inconsistency. Inconsistency means that
two files may contain different data of the same student. For example, if the
address of a student is changed, it must be changed in both files. There is a
possibility that it is changed in the "Students" file and not from "Library" file.
The data becomes inconsistent in this situation.
2. Data Isolation
The data in file processing system is stored in various files. It becomes very
difficult to write new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data.
Suppose that student emails are stored in "Students" file and fee information
is stored in "Fee" file. The data from both files is required to send an email
message to inform a student that the date for fee payment is over. In file
processing system, it is difficult to generate such type of list from multiple
files.
3. Integrity Problems
Integrity means reliability and accuracy of data. The stored data must satisfy
certain types of consistency constrains. For example, Roll No and Marks of
students should be numeric value. It is very difficult to apply these constrains
on files in file processing system.
4. Program Data Dependency
Program data dependency is a relationship between data in files and
program required to update and maintain the files. Application programs are
developed according to a particular file format in file processing system. if
the format of file is changed, the application program also needs to be
changed accordingly. For example, if there is a change in the length of postal
code, it requires change in the program. The changes may be costly to
implement.
5. Atomicity Problem
An operation on data may consist of different steps. A collection of all steps
required to complete a process is known as transaction. The atomicity means
that either one transaction should take place as a whole or it should not take
place at all. Suppose a user wants to transfer money from account A to
account B. This process consists of two steps:
Deduct the money from account A.
Add the money to account B.
Atomicity Problem (Continue…)
Suppose that the system fails when the computer has performed the first
step. It means that the amount has been deducted from account A but has
not been added to account B. This situation can make data inconsistent. File
processing system does not provide the facility to ensure atomicity of data.
6. Security Problems
File processing system does not provide suitable security on data. In some
situations, it is required to provide different types of access to data for
different users. For example, a data entry operator should only be allowed to
enter data. The chairman of the organization should be able to access or
delete the data completely. Such types of security options are not available in
file processing system.
7. Program Maintenance
The programs developed in file processing system are difficult to maintain.
Most of the budget may be spent on maintenance. It makes it difficult to
develop new applications.
Database
“Database is an organized collection of related data that is stored in
an efficient and compact manner.”
• The word organized means that data is stored in such a way that the user
can use this data easily.
• The word related means that a database is normally created to store the
data about a particular topic. For example if a database is created for
students, it will contain data about the students such as roll no, name,
address etc. Similarly, if the database is about the employees of an
organization, it will contain the data of employees such as employee ID,
grade and salary etc. All data in database is arranged in tables.
• The word efficient means that the user can search the required data
quickly.
• The word compact means that the stored data occupies as little space as
possible in computer.
Tables
Table is the fundamental object of the database structure. The basic purpose of
a table is to store data. A table consists of rows and columns. The data in tables
can be manipulated easily.
Serial No Name Qualification Email

1 Usman I3.Sc. usman@abc.corn.pk

2 Abdullah M.Sc. abdullah@abc.com.pk

3 Ejaz M.Sc. ejaz@abc.com.pk

Rows / Record
Rows are the horizontal part of the table. It is a collection of related fields. For
example, the above table has three rows. Each row contains a record of
different person.
Columns / Field
Columns are the vertical part of the table. For example, all values in the above
table under "Name" field make a column.
Examples of Databases
Phone Directory
Phone directory is a simple example of a database. A phone directory stores
the phone numbers of different persons. Searching a phone number from
phone directory is very easy as all phone numbers are stored in an organized
way.
Library
A library contains thousands of books. It is very difficult to handle the records
of all these books without database. A database system can be used to store
the records of books, members of the library, issuance and recovery of books
etc.
College
A college has many students in different classes. A database may be used to
keep the' records of the students, fee transactions, examination information
and other data of the college. It can also store the attendance of the
students.
Database Management System
• “A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that
are used to create and maintain a database.”
• DBMS is a general-purpose software system that provides the following
facilities:
1) It provides the facility to define the structure of database. The user can
specify data types, format and constraints for the data to be stored in
database.
2) It provides the facility to store data on some storage medium controlled by
DBMS.
3) It provides the facilities to insert, delete, update and retrieve specific data to
generate reports etc.
Components of Database Environment
• Repository
A repository is a collection of all data definitions, data relationships, output
styles and report formats etc. All this information is the metadata that is
important to manage database.
• Database Management System
A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that are
used to create and maintain a database.
• Database
Database can be defined as an organized collection of related data. The word
organized" means that data is stored in such a way that the user can store,
manipulate and retrieve easily. The word "related" means that a database
normally created to store the data about a particular topic.
• Application Program
An application program is a program that is used to send commands to the
database management system to manipulate database. These commands are
sent to DBMS through graphical user interface.
• User Interface
The user interface is a visual environment that is used by the user to
communicate with the computer. It consists of menus, buttons and other
components. All windows based software use graphical user interface. The
user interface consists of following components:
I. Forms: The forms are used to enter data in the database. A form consists of textboxes,
labels and buttons that are used by the users for entering data easily. The user can also
retrieve, change and update data by using forms.
II. Menus: Menus are a list of commands for performing different operations. Menus are
frequently used in windows-based applications. The user can use them easily for
manipulating the database.
III. Reports: Reports are the output of the database application. The user can generate different
types of reports by manipulating the database. The information on the reports is arranged in
different forms and may contain graphs, charts and tables etc.
• Data Administrators
Data administrators are the persons who are responsible of whole
information system. They authorize access to the database as well as
coordinate and monitor the use of database.
• System Analysts and Application Programmers
System analysts determine the requirements of end users and develop
specifications for transactions. Application programmers implement these
specifications and programs.
• End User
End users are those persons who interact with the application directly. They
are responsible to insert, delete and update data in the database. They get
information from the system as and when required.
Database Approach
Advantages of Database Approach
1. Redundancy Control
2. Data Consistency
3. Consistency Constraints
4. Data Atomicity
5. Data Security
6. Reduced Development Time

Note: 1 to 6 Self study (IT Series)

7. Compactness
The database management system stores data with compactness and
efficiency. It require less storage space than the file system. It saves the
storage resources of the system and memory is not wasted.
8. Easier Reporting
Reports are very important part of database applications. The reports are
very essential for taking crucial decisions in an organization. The data in
database is stored in an organized manner. It can easily be retrieved for
creating different reports. The reports can be prepare very easily and quickly
in required format in database management system.
9. Data Sharing
Once a database is developed, it can be used by several users in the
organization. The database can also be shared by different applications. If a
new application requires the same data, it can share the existing database
instead of developing it again.
10.Increased Concurrency
In some situation, two or more users may access the same file
simultaneously. It is possible that the accesses will interfere with each other.
This may result in loss of information. Many DBMS manage concurrent access
and ensure such problem cannot occur.
11.Improved Backup and Recovery
In file-based systems, it is the responsibility of the user to protect data from
failures the computer system or application program. This may require taking
backup of the data daily. If the data is lost, the backup is restored. The
modern DBMS provide facilities to minimize the amount of processing that
can be lost due to a failure.
12.Data Independence
Database approach provides the facility of data independence. It means that
the data and the application programs are separate from each other. It is
possible to change a storage structures and operations without changing the
application programs.