Sociological Positivism

Humaira Masihuddin
 Why Durkheim
• Out of the three main founding fathers of
sociology he was the only one he was the only
one who discussed the subject of Crime at
length.

• Can you name any other two ?

• David Emile Durkheim was born on April 15, 1858 in
Epinal, capital town of the department of Vosges, in
Lorraine. His mother, Mélanie, was a merchant's
daughter, and his father, Moïse, had been rabbi of
Epinal since the 1830s.
• He appeared destined for the rabbinate, and a part of
his early education was spent in a rabbinical school.
This early ambition was dismissed while he was still a
schoolboy, and soon after his arrival in Paris,
Durkheim would break with Judaism altogether.
• [Philosophers]
• Picture of Emile DurkheimEmile Durkheim

• French Sociologist and Philosopher

• 1858-1917

• Sociologist, born in Epinal, France, generally regarded as one of the founders of

sociology. He studied at Paris, and became a teacher, then taught at the
University of Bordeaux (1887) and at the Sorbonne. His writings include Les
Règles de la méthode sociologique (1894, The Rules of Sociological Method) and
a definitive study of suicide (1897). He is perhaps best known for his concept of
"collective representations', the social power of ideas stemming from their
development through the interaction of many minds.
 Durkheim and Criminology
• For Durkheim Crime was those actions that
offended against collective feelings or
sentiments.
• Crime is not static or unchanging.
• The Notion of crime reflects particular social
conventions and these vary according to time
and space.
• They might not be injurious to society but may
be understood as violation of a code.
 Crime According to Durkheim
• A certain amount of crime is NORMAL in every
society.

• Crime is present in all societies of all types.

•
• No society is not confronted with criminality.

• In fact crime performs a lot of functions in society.

• Can you name a few????
• Adaptive nature ; Introduces new ideas and
practices into society thereby ensuring that there is
change rather than stagnation.
• Boundary maintenance function reinforcing social
values and norms.
• Through its stimulation of collective action against
deviance it helps to reaffirm the difference between
right and wrong.
• To this end crime should be considered a normal
element in any properly functioning society.
• Inevitable.

• Although Regrettable.

• A factor in Public health.

• A part of our social Glue.

• By proscribing certain behaviors we indicate what acceptable behaviours look

like

• An integral part of all societies.

•
• (Not entirely anti social strange, or parasitic)
 Observation and it’s impact

We must not say that an action shocks the

conscience collective because it is criminal, but
rather that it is criminal because it shocks the
conscience collective, we don not condemn it
because it’s a crime but it’s a crime because we
condemn it. (Durkheim, 1972; 123-24)
Impacted on Labeling theory, Control theories,
Radical theories)
 Durkheim, Social Change, Anomie
• If Crime and Punishment have the ability to
provide us with important insights into the
nature and function of society;
• Then
• The periods of Dramatic Change will surely be
reflected in the penal sphere.
• Mechanical Solidarity Organic Solidarity
• Primary societies Complex Societies.
• Based on similarities.. Based on differences.
• Little interdependence High interdependence.
• Low volume of Pop. High Level of Pop.
• Low vol of material. High level of material.
• TYPES OF LAW: TYPES OF LAW:
• Rules with repressive Rules with restitutive
sanctions sanctions.
• Prevalent Penal Law Prevalent Corporate law
 Transformation Gap Anomie
• Society transforming from M To O.
• Retribution becoming less.
• Moral restraints are insufficient to restrict and
limit individual desires.
• During this GAP between M and O a lot of
normlessness takes place Durkeim calls this
Anomie.
• The link to crime and deviance is Clear.
 SUICIDE
• For Durkheim the most intimate of individual acts
also had a social background.
• Why suicide was chosen; at that time suicide was
a crime in most of Europe.
• Generally considered a deviant act.
• Considered an individual rather than a social
phenomena.
• Durkheim wanted to show the sociological aspect
of even the most individualized forms of deviance.
• Durkheim studied suicide rates using official
records.
• He sought to explain how patterns of suicide
might be explained by reference to such
sociological factors like
• Religion,
• Social structure.
• Economic conditions.
 The study of Suicide rates threw up the
following Features.
• Rates of suicide were higher in Protestant
countries than Catholic countries.
• Single people were more prone to suicide than
married people.
• Suicide in military was higher than civilians
• Suicide rates drop in time of war.
• Suicide rates were higher by three times in
times of economic crisis than stability.
• With increased prosperity, desires
increase….ambition always exceeds the results
obtained, great as they may be, since there is
no warning to pause here…..since this race for
an unattainable goal can give no other
pleasure but that of the race itself….once it is
interrupted the participants are left empty
handed…. How could the desire to live not
weaken under these conditions???????
 Two critical factors
• Integration Social Cohesion brought about by
shared beliefs and practices, the forces of
attraction that bring people together.

• Regulation; The constraints that limit human

behaviors and desires.
 Smith 2008
• 7 key insights into Criminology owe their origin to Durkeim
• Deviance is in part product of weak moral integration and
poor social regulation.
• Deviance is a social fact, normal and inevitable even as
useful.
• Definitions are variable.
• Transition fr M to O leads to Anomie
• Law reflects cultural values of society.
• Crime is meaningful.
• Punishment has a ritual and expressive dimension.
 Robert Merton
• Robert Merton’s famous theory is also called
Modes of adaptation
• Modes of Adaptation Goals Means
Conformity + +
Deviance + -
Ritualism - +
Retreatism - -
Rebellion +/_ +/_
 Strain Theory
• Albert Cohen and the study of cultures and sub
cultures.
• Cohen did not agree with marginal deprivation of
Merton’s theory.
• He said it failed to explain why young people felt
frustrated even though they did not aspire to
“merton’s” goals.
• Frustrations vis a vis status, challenges in edu leading to
strain on the working class children and their attraction
to other youth under same strain forming gangs. etc
• This presentation is based on Tim Newbern's
Criminology 2nd edition