Biological
Biological Control
Control
Adapted from: IRRI
Biological Control
Biological control (BC) is the action of predators,
parasitoids, pathogens, antagonists, or competitor
populations to suppress a pest population, making
it less abundant and less damaging than it would
otherwise be.
BC is a population-leveling process in which one
species’ population lowers the numbers of another
species by mechanisms such as predation,
parasitism, pathogenicity or competition.
Biological control is a natural phenomenon
History
In 8th and 9th centuries farmers were making use of
predacious arthropods. In China and Yemen, ant colonies
were moved among citrus and date trees to control pests.
Control of cottony cushion scale of citrus in California
through the introduction of the Vidalia beetle from Australia
in the late 1880s marked the beginning of intensive
activities in this field in the 20th century.
Biological Control Agents
Pathogen Parasitoid
Predator Parasite
Predator
A predator is an animal that depends on
predation for its food. It sustains life by killing
and consuming animals of other species.
Predators are generalists
A single predator predate on large numbers
of prey in its lifetime
Immature and adult of both sexes predate
Efficient hunter
Develop separately from their prey
Predator
Predatory behavior is widespread among
insects, spiders and mites
Members of > 40 families of insects are
predator
Members of all the 60 families of spiders are
predators
•Members of 27 families of order Acari (mites)
prey on or parasitize other invertebrates
Other insect predators include number of
species of birds, frogs and toads, bats, fishes
etc.
Parasite
A parasite is an organism living in or on
another living organism, obtaining from it
part or all of its organic nutrients,
resulting in death for the host or altered
growth, development and reproduction.
These are mainly nematodes and mites,
which are parasitic to insects.
Parasitoid
Insects that parasitize other insects
and arthropods are parasitoids.
Approximately 10% of all insect
species are parasitoids.
About 75% of the parasitoids are
Hymenoptera, the remaining 25% are
Diptera, Strepsiptera, Neuroptera,
Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.
Parasitoid
Parasitic in immature stage but free
living as an adult
Always kill their hosts
Specialist or oligophagous
Host stage specific
Only the female is involved in the
act of parasitism
Completes its development on one
host individual
Parasitism terminology
Solitary parasitoid - a single parasitoid can develop on a
single host.
Gregarious parasitoid - several parasitoids of a species
can develop on a single host.
Polyembryony - deposit a single egg per host, which
subsequently divides into many cells, and each of which
develops independently.
Superparasitism - more eggs are deposited by a single
species in a host that can survive.
Multiparasitism - Two or more species of parasitoids
attack the same host.
Parasitism terminology
Endoparasitoids - Parasitoids that insert their eggs
into hosts.
Ectoparasitoids - Parasitoids those lay their eggs
externally.
Primary parasitoids - Parasitoids of non-parasitoid
hosts.
Hyperparasitoids - Parasitoids that attack other
species of parasitoids.
Parasitoid
Parasitoids are very important component of
the natural enemy complex of insect pests
Members of 43 families of Hymenoptera are
parasitoids
Twelve families of Diptera contain some
parasitoid species
Some parasitoids are also found in the insect
order Strepsiptera, Lepidoptera and
Coleoptera
Pathogens
More than 1500 species of pathogens are known
to attack arthropods
Pathogens are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa
and nematodes
Bacteria
Suitable for commercial use
Three species of spore-forming bacteria in the
genus Bacillus are currently used
Bt. products are available for control of
lepidoptera, coleoptera and diptera
Pathogens
Viruses
16 families found to be pathogens of insects
Members of Baculoviridae cause lethal infections
High production costs, narrow host specificity
Fungi
> 400 species of entomopathogenic fungi recognized
Fungal epidemics occur periodically, can cause high
levels of mortality
Has narrow host range, and high humidity is needed for
germination or sporulation
Pathogens
Protozoa
protozoa like micro-sporidians and the eugergarines
infect insects
Nematodes
Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae have potential
for the control of agricultural pests. They are
mutualistically associated with bacteria that kill the
nematode’s host
• Nematodes of mermithidae, phaenopsitylenchidae,
iotonchiidae, sphaerulariidae and tetradonematidae
infect insects
Approaches of Biological Control
Naturally occurring BC or Natural BC
BC control agents are naturally
performing their functions
To enhance BC interventions are
sometimes necessary
Three major types of interventions:
Conservation
Augmentation
Introduction or classical biological
control
Cons er vat ion
Inoculat ive Releas e
Biological Cont r ol Augment at ion
Inundat ive Releas e
Int r oduct ion or Clas s ical
Biological Cont r ol
Approaches of biological control
Approaches of BC
Conservation
Modification of the environment or habitat in
combination with judicious use of pesticides in order to
conserve NEs and enhance BC
Efforts to enhance the environmental requisites that
NEs need to flourish in a system
Assumption - existing NEs have the potential to
effectively suppress pests, if given the opportunity
Conservation is perhaps most cost effective and
universal form of BC
Approaches of BC
Conservation Methods
Aiming to enhance the environmental
requisites that NEs need to flourish
Supplementary foods – alternate hosts
or prey
Complementary foods – honeydew,
pollen, nectar
Modified climate – windbreakers
Over-wintering or nesting habitat
Shelter – adjacent non-crop vegetation
provides shelter during off-season
Approaches of BC
Reduce Pesticide Use
NEs are more susceptible to insecticides than insect
pests:
Smaller in size
Greater mobility on plants (prey searching)
Habits are less concealed
Less ability to detoxify chemical poisons
More exposed to insecticides
Approaches of BC
Augmentation
Manipulation of NE in order to make them more efficient
regulator of pest
When NEs are missing, late to arrive at new plantings or
too scarce to provide control, their numbers may be
increased through releases
The principal limitations are cost, quality and field
effectiveness of the released organisms
Two approaches of augmentation:
Inoculative release
Inundative release
Approaches of BC
Inoculative Release
Releasing small numbers of NEs into a crop cycle with the
expectation that they will reproduce in the crop and their
offspring will continue to provide pest control for an
extended period of time
Inundative Release
When insufficient reproduction of released NEs is likely to
occur then pest control will be achieved exclusively by the
release of large number of individuals
Approaches of BC
Introduction or classical Biological Control
If sufficient effective NEs are not present to control pests, introduction of NE
species may be necessary - introduction or classical BC
So far, 5000 programs of classical BC attempt were made
against insect pests – complete or partial success achieved
against 200 species
Highest success rates was with Homopteran insects - aphids,
plant hoppers, scale insects and mealy bugs etc.
It has a major advantage over other forms of BC in that it is
self- maintaining and less expensive over the long-term
