ASSIGNMENT

PRODUCTION OF PLANTATION CROPS

(FSC-503)

BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL OF

PLANTATION CROPS
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
BHUBANESWAR, (O.U.A.T)

SUBMITTED TO- SUBMITTED BY-

DR. P.K. PANDA ABHISHEK PADHY

PROFESSOR ADM. NO. – 18122I04

M.Sc. (AG) FRUIT SCIENCE AND

HORTICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

1ST YEAR 1ST SEMESTER

 Biological Control
• Biological control has been defined in bulletin of commonwealth Institute
of Biological Control as follows:

• “It is the method of controlling the pest whether of plants, animals or

man by exposing to natural enemies. The term biological control has
recently been extended to cover all methods employing living organisms
for pest control.

• This includes the breeding of varieties of crop plants, resistant to pest &
diseases and release of sterile male of a pest to interfere with the
reproduction.

• The use of sex attractants is to kill male before mating takes place &
manipulation of genetics of pest population to render individual sterile”.

The Kinds of Biological Control Agents :

• (a) Predators. The important characteristics of predators are that

individuals consume a number of prey during their lifetime and that they
are active organisms which seek their food. Monophagous predators or
species with a narrow range of prey (oligophagous) Ladybird beetles, many
species of predatory bugs, lacewings and the larvae of hover flies are
common insect predators.

• (b) Parasitoids. These insects develop parasitically in a single host which is

eventually killed. Thus individual parasitoids only consume one prey (or
host) during their lifetime. This unique lifestyle is exhibited by a remarkably
diverse group of small wasps and flies. Although the larval stage is parasitic,
the adults are free-living and highly mobile so that they are able to search
actively for hosts in which to lay eggs, and may themselves feed as
predators, many are entirely monophagous.

• (d) Parasites. Parasitic organisms tend to weaken rather than kill their
hosts. They depend on the host throughout their existence except for short
periods when they disperse. This stage is usually a passive egg or spore
which requires an efficient dispersal agent if the parasite is to be useful
 long-term control. Except for a few instances, e.g. nematode parasites of
insects, parasites have not so far found a place as useful control agents.

• (e) Pathogens. Parasitic micoorganisms will often kill their host outright.
Dead hosts liberate millions of individual microbes which are dispersed by
the wind and rain. Because of their minute size and rapid reproduction in
the host, pathogens are easier to mass-produce than parasites and can be
released against pests using equipment developed for the application of
chemical pesticides.

• (f) Antagonists. There are biological control agents which influence the
abundance of pests but do not feed directly on them. They are thought to
decrease pest populations by competitive exclusion which may involve
either simple physical exclusion or the secretion by the antagonist of
substances (e.g. antibiotics) which inhibit the pest.

How Biological Control Agents Are Used?

(a) Introduction. This is now commonly referred to as "classical biological

control." An exotic beneficial organism is introduce into a new area and
becomes permanently established. When successful, pest mortality is
increased to the extent that the pest becomes of negligible importance, a
biological balance is achieved and control continues indefinitely. This
method has been used most frequently against introduced pests.

(b) Augmentation. Where the numbers of native natural enemies are inadequate,
because their numbers do not build up sufficiently rapidly, or because they are
unable to maintain adequate densities under present agricultural practice, their
numbers may be usefully increase by releases of laboratory-bred individuals.

Eg. Coconut caterpillars are controlled by release of parasite in Kerala.

(c) Inoculation. Where a native natural enemy is absent from a particular area, or
an introduced species is unable to survive permanently, inoculative releases can
be made at the beginning of a season or as a new crop develops to colonize the
area for the duration of the season or crop, and so prevent pest build-up.

(d) Inundation. Very large numbers of a native or introduced natural enemy, very
often a pathogen, are cultured and applied at critical periods for short-term
suppression of pest numbers, in much the same way as most chemical pesticides.
(e) Conservation. This is an indirect method in that measures are taken to
conserve natural enemies and enhance the numbers of species already present in
the crop environment.

COCONUT
• Biological control

• Conserve the natural enemies

• Release Goniozus nephantidis (larval parasite), @ 10 no.s per plant at 15

days interval for 4 times Bracon hebetor and Bracon breviconis @ 20 no.s
per 100 larvae at 15 days intervals for 4 times, Elasmus nephantidis (pre-
pupal) and Brachymeria nosatoi (pupal) @ one per plant against Opisina
arenosella.

• Goniozus nephantidis (Bethylidae) parasitizing the grown-up caterpillars

and Trichospilus pupivora (Eulophidae), a pupal parasitoid are natural
enemies of coconut black headed caterpillar (Opsinia arenosella).

• The successful biological control of coconut leaf mining beetle

Promecotheca riechai in Fiji by introducing a parasite Plourotropis parvulus
(larval & pupal stages) from java where it parasitized other species of
promecotheca.

• Release Baculovirus Oryctes against Oryctes rhinoceros @ 10-15 virus

infected beetles per ha.

• Metarhizium anisopliae could be mass cultured in coconut water or on

cassava chips and rice bran supplemented with a nitrogen source during
monsoon season against Rhinoceros beetle @ 5 X 10⁶ spore/m3 of
breeding area.

• Incorporation of the weed plant, Clerodendron infertunatum in the

breeding sites of O.rhinoceros disrupts larval development.

• Possibly, the most successful use of a Tachinid as a biological control agent

was against the coconut moth, Lovuanna iridescens in Fiji (Origin is not
known). This fly gave complete control of moth in Fiji.
 Potential Bioagents of Coconut Palm

Sl Bioagent Nature Host Stage

attacked

HYMENOPTERANS

1. Apanteles taragamae Parasitic O. arenosella Early

Larvae

2. Goniozus nephantidis Parasitic O. arenosella Larvae

3. Bracon brevicornis Parasitic O. arenosella Larvae

4. Eriborus trochanteratus Parasitic O. arenosella Larvae

5. Elasmus nephantidis Parasitic O. arenosella Prepupal

stage

6. Brachymeria nephantidis Parasitic O. arenosella Pupal

Stage

7. Brachymeria nosatoi Parasitic O. arenosella Pupal

stage

8. Xanthopimpla sp. Parasitic O. arenosella Pupal

Stage

9. Campsomeriella collaris Parasitic White Grub

Grub
Sl. No. Bioagent Nature Host Stage Attacked

10. Carabids : Predatory O. arenosella Larvae

Parena nigrolineata

Calleida splendidula

11. Anthocoreid Bug : Predatory O. arenosella Egg and

neonatal stage
(Cardiastethus sp.)

12. Reduviid Bug : (Exotic) Predatory Rhinoceros Adult

beetle
Platymeris laevicollis

13. Spiders: Predatory All insects All stages

Cheiracanthium sp.

C. Melanostoma

Rhene indicus

Marpissa tiggrina

Phidippus bengalensis

Sparassus sp.

Tetragnathes
andamanensis
Sl. Bioagent Nature Host Stage Attacked
No.

14. Santallus parallelus Predatory Rhinoceros Eggs and

beetle Larvae
Pherosophus occipitalis

P.lissoderus

Harpalus indus

Scaritus sp.

Agrypnus sp.

Oxycetonia versicolor

15. Pathogens : Pathogenic Rhinoceros Grub and

Beetle Adult
Baculovirus oryctes

16. Metarhizium anisopliae Pathogenic Rhinoceros Grub

beetle and
Grub

17. Psedomonas aeruginosa Pathogenic Red palm Grub

weevil

18. Nuclear Polyhedrosis Pathogenic Red palm Grub

Virus weevil

19. Cytoplasmic Virus Pathogenic Red palm Grub

weevil
Sl. Bioagent Nature Host Stage
No. Attacked

20. Beauveria bassina Pathogenic White Grub Grub

21. Beauveria brogniartii Pathogenic White grub Grub

22. Nematodes: Parasitic Rhinoceros Grub

Beetle,Red palm
Heterorhabditis indica
weevil and White
grub

OIL PALM

Insecticide application

Drawbacks:

•Kills beneficial insects

•Trigger resistance to target pest

•Pests resurgence

Outbreak of Pseudoresia desmierdechenoni (2012) in area where recurring

attacks of Setothosea asigna often occur.
 • Implementation of IPM for pests management emphasizing biological
control as the first alternative.

• Predators & parasitoids

• Entomopathogenic fungi

• Viruses

• Bacteria

• Entomopathogenic nematodes

• Ecofriendly product

• Insect pheromones

Predators of leaf-eating caterpillar

Predator Prey Stadia

Sycanus sp. Nettle caterpillar, Larvae

bagworm, tussock moth

Cosmolestes sp. Nettle caterpillar, Larvae

bagworm, tussock moth

Eucanthecona sp. Nettle caterpillar and Larvae and moth

tussock moth

Callimerus sp. Nettle caterpillar and Larvae

bagworm
Parasitoids of leaf-eating caterpillars

Parasitoids Host Stadia

Trichogrammatoidea thoseae S. asigna, S. nitens Eggs

Brachymeria lasus M. plana, Clania tertia Larvae

Fornicia ceylonica S. asigna, S. nitens Larvae

Spinaria spinator S.nitens Larvae

Apanteles aluella D.trima Larvae

A.metisae M.plana, M. corbetti Larvae

Chlorocryptus purpuratus S.asigna Larvae and Pupae

Chaetexorista javana S. asigna, S. nitens Larvae and Pupae

Enhancing the role of predators and parasitoids

• Restoring or maintaining weedy strips increase predator occurrences as

well as predation rates.

• Increasing vegetation diversity by introducing flowering plants such as

Turnera subulata or Antigonon leptopus increase beneficial insect visitation
in the block .

• Outbreak of S. asigna occurs twice in block without flowering plant

introduction.
 Beneficial plants for natural enemies

Antigonon leptopus Turnera subulata/ T. ulmifolia

Euphornia heterophylla Elephantopus scaber

Cassia tora
 Entomopathogenic Fungi –Metarhizium anisopliae

The most widely studied

 Highly pathogenic to

O. rhinoceros larvae

 Commercial formulation

is available

 M. anisopliae application

reduces 70% population

of Oryctes larvae.

Other Methods-
Organic trap (EFB, M. anisopliae, pherotrap) in peatland plantation
•Improves beetle’s trapping
•Lures beetles to lay eggs
in the trap.
Termite (Coptotermes
curvignathus)
•Major pest in peatland
plantations
•Attacks immature and
mature palms
Control-
•Direct application of
M. anisopliae on soil is not effective
•Need trapping
 Mixture of M. anisopliae - EFB Compost

Mortality of C. curvignathus at 5 weeks after pre-mixed M. anisopliae–EFB

compost application

Another approach: Termite baiting system

• Causes 100% mortality of Darna trima in

green house

• Causes 43.3% mortality on Setothosea

asigna

Infection of B. bassiana on nettle

caterpillar, Darna trima
 Entomopathogenic Fungi –Cordyceps militaris

• Narrow host range

• Less studied
• Mass application in 1990s
• Pupae infection ranged from 40% -80%.
Viruses
• Host specific:

 Oryctes nudivirus (OrNV),

 S. asigna nuclear polyhedrosis virus (SaNPV),
 Setora nitens NPV (SnNPV)

Oryctes nudivirus (OrNV)

• Infection occurs on larvae and beetle

• Field application by releasing infected larvae and beetles .

• Re-release of infected larvae and beetle could decrease Oryctes population.

NPV

• Application of 400 g crude sap/ha reduce S. asigna population by more than

90%. Successive application maintains the population in check for 6 month.
• Symptoms of SaNV infection on the S. asigna larvae
• Application of 250 –500 ml virus suspension/ha decrease population of S.
asignafrom 8.8 to 1.9 larvae per frond. The population maintained in check
for 2 consecutive years.
Bacillus thuringiensis
• Used for controlling leaf-eating caterpillar
• Single-continuous application of B. thuringiensis to control D. trima in Bukit
Sentang Estate gradually reduced total infested area from 163 ha in 1992
to only 3 ha in 1993 and maintained total infested area of < 9 ha until 1996
• Causes more than 80% mortality at 18 days after application.
Aggregate pheromones
• Ecofriendly
•An integral part in IPM for rhinoceros beetle management.
Ethyl-4-methyl-octanoate
•Widely use for monitoring and management purposes.
Design of pheromone traps
•Highly efficient for mass trapping O. rhinoceros beetles.
• The vegetation surrounding oil palm plantations and the distance from the
border of the plantation affected both predation rates and predator
occurrences.
• Ants and bush crickets were the most prominent predators in the
plantations, whereas birds, bats, monkeys, beetles, and molluscs played a
minor role.
• Koh (2008b) found that increasing epiphyte and leguminous crop cover in
the oil palm plantation can enhance insectivorous bird populations and
Kamarudin & Wahid (2010) observed that planting Cassia cobanensis within
the vicinity of oil palm plantations can promote parasitoids of bagworms, a
major oil palm pest (Kamarudin and Wahid, 2010).
• The higher attack pressure in plantations surrounded by jungle rubber,
weedy oil palm, weedy rubber, and secondary forest suggests that diverse
vegetation surrounding oil palm plantations could be useful for conserving
predators and controlling oil palm pests, especially caterpillars.
However, the border effect quickly declines with distance from the border so
that management inside the plantation is necessary.
Infection of C. militaris on nettle S. nitens larvae infected
caterpillar pupae, S. asigna by SnNPV

Symptoms of SaNV infection on

the S. asigna larvae

Bacillus thuringiensis

Symptoms of OrNV infection on the rhinoceros larvae and beetle

PHEROMONE TRAPS

Aggregate pheromone
trapping of O. rhinoceros
beeetles
 Tea

Pests of National Significance

I. Pests and mites

1.1 Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis theivora Waterhouse (Miridae: Hemiptera)

1.2 Thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)
1.3 Jassid: Empoasca flavescens Fab. (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
1.4 Aphids: Toxoptera aurantii Boyer de Fonscolombe (Aphididae: Hemiptera)
1.5 Leaf eating caterpillar: Spodoptera litura Fab (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
1.6 Bunch caterpillar: Andraca bipunctata Walker (Bombycidae: Lepidoptera)
1.7 Red spider mite: Oligonychus coffeae Nietner (Tetranychidae: Acari)
1.8 Tea looper complex: Buzura suppressaria Guen (Geometridae: Lepidoptera),
Hyposidra talaca (Walker), H. infixaria (Walker) (Geometridae: Lepidoptera)
1.9 Shot hole borer: Euwallacea fornicates Eichhoff (Scolytidae: Coleoptera)
1.10 Live wood eating termite: Microcerotermes sp. (Isoptera:Termitidae)
1.11 Scavenging termites: Odontermes sp. (Isoptera:Termitidae)
Pests of Minor Significance

1. Pests and mites

1.1 Flush worm: Cydia leucostoma Meyrick (Tortricidae: Lepidoptera)

1.2 Pink and Purple mite: Acaphylla theae Watt and Calacarus carinatus Green
(Eriophyidae: Acarina)

1.3 Scarlet mite: Brevipalpus phoenicis Geijskes (Tenuipalpidae : Acarina)

1.4 Yellow mite: Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks (Tarsonemidae: Acarina)

1.5 Leaf roller: Caloptilia theivora Walsingham (Gracillariidae: Lepidoptera)

1.6 Scales: Saissetia formicarii Takahashi, S. coffeae Walker, Eriochiton theae

Green, Coccus viridis Green (Coccidae: Hemiptera)

1.7 Tea tortrix: Homona coffearia Nietner (Tortricide: Lepidoptera)

Field scouting for Tea pests

• Surveillance on pest occurrence in the main field should commence soon
after crop establishment and at weekly intervals thereafter. In field, select
five spots randomly. Select five random plants at each spot for recording
counts of insects as per procedure finalized for individual insects

• For insect pests:

• Aphids: Count and record the number of both nymphs and adults on three
randomly selected leaves (top, middle and bottom) per plant.

• Thrips: Thrips population will have to be assessed at periodical interval by

collecting 100 shoots at random from each area and counting the number
of adult and larval thrips. Attention may be paid to collect the shoots from
the plucking table, below the plucking table and also from side branches.

• Tea mosquito bug: The percentage of infestation has to be assessed by

collecting 100 shoots from pluckers’ basket and counting the infested
shoots.

• Caterpillar pests: Flushworm /leaf roller/tea tortrix population has to be

assessed by counting the number of infected shoots from bushes selected
at random from that particular area.

• Red spider mites: One hundred leaves may be sampled from different
areas of the particular field and the number of infested leaves may be
counted to find out percentage of infested level.

• Eriophyid mites: Pink & purple mite populations have to be assessed at

periodical interval by collecting 100 leaves from 100 bushes selected at
random from each area. From each leaf, pink & purple mites have to be
counted with the help of hand lens.

• Shot hole borer: To assess the extent of SBH infestation in individual tea
field, the fields has to be divided into 2 ha blocks and from each block one
hundred stem cuttings are to be taken at random. Attention may be paid to
collect stem of 1-1.5 cm diam. and 20 cm long.

• Common biological practices for all pests (including thrips and mites):

• Conserve natural enemies through ecological engineering

• Augmentative release of natural enemies.

  Aphids
• Biological control:

• Insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil are usually the best
method of control; always check the labels of the products for specific
usage guidelines prior to use.

 Tea mosquito bug

• Biological control:

• See common practices.

• Applying native plant crude aquaus extracts viz. Clerodendrum viscosum

(Dhopat tita/ Ghato), Polygonum hydropiper (Pothorua bihlonganii), Cassia
alata (Khor pat), Xanthium strumarium, Vitex negundo and Amphineuron Sp
(Bitter fern) @ 5% concentration may also be done in case of low and
moderate infestation of the pest.

• Entomopathogen, Beauveria bassiana @ 1.2 Kg/acre minimized infestation

of H. theivora in field condition.

• Biological control measures taken for the control of pests and diseases of
tea at AAU and TES, Jorhat which are highlighted hereunder by citing a few
examples.

• A new improved medium for mass production of Beauveria bassiana has

been developed which is of great significance. The medium is designed to
produce 39.33 x lo7 sporeslml and showed high pathogenicity to insects
(85% mortality).

• 80-100% control of pest population was observed by using B. bassiana in

Helopeltis theivora, Verticillium lecanii in Oligonychus coffeae and NPV in
Buzura suppressaria.

• Infection of NPVs (AbNPV and BsNPV) was detected for the first time in the
bunch caterpillar (Andraca bipunctata) and looper caterpillar (Buzura
suppressaria) in tea. Crysoperla carnea and Trichogramma chilonis were
also identified as potential predator and parasitoid of soft-bodied pests and
eggs of several lepidopteran pests of tea crop.

• TV clones released by TES were screened against 0. coffeae and H. theivora

and resistant clones were identified.
• A few entomopathogens namely Beauveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii
and Paecilomyces sp. were also isolated from tea pests.

• It was recorded that V. lecanii could kill 70-80% tea aphid and 70% tea
coccid, and thus could protect 83% of the infested tea seedlings.

• Aqueous and solvent extracts of various plants were also tested against tea
pests. Extracts of Linostoma decundrum and Phlogacanthas sp. were found
to show prominent insecticidal activity against 0. coffeae.

• 28 species of spiders were recognized as potential naturally occurring

biocontrol agents against several pests of tea crop and a booklet of "Spider
Complex Of Tea Ecosystem" was prepared. The spider fauna from tea
ecosystem was surveyed and identified subsequently which have
potentiality for use as predators of tea pests.

• BIOCON (Trichoderma biocide) and BIOTOK (Bacillus biocide), two

biopesticide formulations, were developed at TES, Jorhat .Tea growers of
north east lndia are using these biocides successfully for controlling certain
root, stem and black rot diseases of tea crop.

• BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

• Natural enemy diversity in the tea ecosystem has a significant role in

biological control in tea. Hundreds of NEs have been recorded as parasitoids
(various braconids, bethylids, eulophids, ichneumonids, tachinids, and
muscids) mostly against lepidopterans (93), predators (coccinellids,
syrphids, mirids, phytoseiids, and spiders), and pathogens
[entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN),
viruses, and bacteria] naturally occurring either from a single species or
group of insect/mite pests or in the tea ecosystem.
• Braconids, coccinellids/phytoseiids, and EPF outnumber other agents of the
respective group.
• Conservation of Natural Enemies(NEs)

• Protection, maintenance, and enhancing efficacy of the existing population

of NEs through the use of ecofriendly operations or modification of
pesticide practices constitute the main objective of conservation biological
control (CBC).

• Habitat manipulation through intercropping with shade trees and

covercropping vacant land constitutes a plant diversification program in tea
plantations, which may contribute to the process of CBC, by providing
shelter, nectar, pollen, and alternative hosts/prey to the Nes.
• Mass production and augmentation of A. nicholsi Enat., T. dendrolimi, and
Apanteles spp. Suppresse.d yellow mite, smaller tea tortrix, and tea looper,
respectively, in China

• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) as the most successfully utilized microbial

insecticide against lepidopterans and Agromyza theae (Bigot) Meij.
(Diptera: Agromyzidae) .

• Insect Growth Regulator

• IGRs mimic insect hormones, such as juvenile hormone ( JH) and ecdysone,
and thus interfere with normal growth and development. Azadirachtin, an
IGR of plant origin, has been used against some pests of tea.

• Diofenolan, a JH mimic, is effective against scale insects and lepidopteran

eggs of tea pests .

• Ecdysone agonists such as tebufenzide, methoxyfenozide, and halofenozide

have plant systemic action and are effective against lepidopteran pests and
white grubs. Whereas the ecdysone agonists are yet to be evaluated
against tea pests, diflubenzuron, teflufenoxuron, and buprofezin show
some promise .

• Use of metabolic blockers for inhibiting sterol and fatty acid metabolism
has been advocated .

• Mite growth regulators uch as clofentezine, diflovidazin, hexithiozox, nd

etoxazole have been developed for the management of phytophagous
mites. However, etoxazole has been used against Tetranychus sp. in Japan,
and the mite has already developed monogenic resistance against it.

Attractants and Repellents

• The use of attractants in pest management systems can be precise, specific,

and ecologically sound. Although the use of attractants against tea pests is
not yet popularized, synthetic or natural sex pheromone-based attractants
are used for monitoring the population of C. theivora, Adoxophyes sp. , H.
coffearia (75), and Ascotis selenaria cretacea Assc. (Lepidoptera:
Geometridae).
• Beneficial insects
Egg parasitoid
PREDATORS
 BETELVINE

• Field Scouting
• Surveillance on pest occurrence in the main vineyard should commence soon
after crop establishment and at weekly intervals thereafter. In vineyard, select
five spots randomly. Select five random plants at each spot for recording counts
of insects as per procedure finalized for individual insects.
• For insect pests:
• Whitefly, mites, aphids, mealybug, thrips, betalvine/mirid bug: Count and record
the number of both nymphs and adults on five randomly selected leaves per
plant.
• Defoliator/ borers: Count the number of young and grown up larvae on each plant
and record.
• Yellow pan water/blue sticky traps:
• Set up yellow pan water traps 15 cm above the canopy for monitoring whiteflies
and aphids and blue sticky traps for thrips @ 4-5 traps/acre. Locally available
empty tins can be painted yellow/blue and coated with grease/ Vaseline/castor
oil on outer surface may also be used as yellow sticky trap. Count the number of
whiteflies, aphids and thrips on the traps daily and take up the intervention when
the population exceeds 100 per trap.
• Application of Trichoderma harzianum/ viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens for
treatment of seeds/ seedlings/planting material in the nurseries and field
application (if commercial products are used, check for label claim. However,
biopesticides produced by farmers for own consumption in their fields,
registration is not required).
• Ecological Engineering for Pest Management – Above Ground:
• Natural enemies play a very significant role in control of foliar insect pests.
Natural enemy diversity contributes significantly to management of insect pests
both below and above ground.
• Natural enemies may require:
1. Food in the form of pollen and nectar.
2. Shelter, overwintering sites and moderate microclimate, etc.
3. Alternate hosts when primary hosts are not present.
• In order to attract natural enemies following activities should be practiced:
• Raise the flowering plants / compatible cash crops along the vineyard border by
arranging shorter plants towards main crop and taller plants towards the border
to attract natural enemies as well as to avoid immigrating pest population.
• Grow flowering plants on the internal bunds inside the vineyard .
Not to uproot weed plants those are growing naturally such as Tridax
procumbens, Ageratum sp, Alternanthera sp etc. which act as nectar source for
natural enemies.

• The plant compensation ability should also be considered before applying

chemical pesticides.

• Reduce tillage intensity so that hibernating natural enemies can be saved.

• Select and plant appropriate companion plants which could be trap crops and
pest repellent crops. The trap crops and pest repellent crops will also recruit
natural enemies as their flowers provide nectar and the plants provide suitable
microclimate. Due to enhancement of biodiversity by the flowering plants,
parasitoids and predators (natural enemies) number also will increase due to
availability of nectar, pollen and insects etc. The major predators are a wide
variety of spiders, ladybird beetles, long horned grasshoppers, Chrysoperla,
earwigs, etc.

• Common biological practices: for (thrips , white fly and aphids)

• Conserve natural enemies through ecological engineering
• Augmentative release of natural enemies.
• Enhance parasitic activity by avoiding chemical spray, when larval parasitoids are
observed.
• Mealybug/mirid bug
• Release exotic predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 5 per infested plant as per
literature.
• Scale insects
• In nurseries spraying neem oil 0.3 per cent or fish oil rosin 3.0 per cent is also
effective in controlling the pest infestation.
• Natural enemies of scales:
• Parasitoids: Encarsia citrine, Aphytis sp. etc.
• Predators: Bdella sp. Aleurodothrips jasciatus, Karnyothrips melaleucus,
Chilocorus circumdatus, C. nigrita, Pharoscymnus horni; Pseudoscymnus,
lacewings, mirids, Phytoseiids beetles etc.
• Natural enemies of mites:
• Predators: Anthocorid bugs (Orius spp.), mirid bugs, syrphid/hover flies, green
lacewings (Mallada basalis and Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi), predatory mites
(Amblyseius alstoniae, A. womersleyi, A. fallacies and Phytoseiulus persimilis),
predatory coccinellids (Stethorus punctillum), staphylinid beetle (Oligota spp.),
predatory cecidomyiid fly (Anthrocnodax occidentalis), predatory gall midge
(Feltiella minuta), spiders etc.
• Natural enemies of thrips:
• Parasitoids: Ceranisus menes (nymph).
• Predators: Syrphid flies, minute pirate bug/anthocorid bug (Blaptosthethus sp,
Buchananiella whitei, Orius tantilus), praying mantis, predatory thrips
(Aeolothrips fasciatum), damsel bug, lace wings, coccinellids (Menochilus
sexmaculatus), spiders etc.
• Natural enemies of aphids:
• Parasitoids: Aphelinus spp. Aphytis spp., Diaeretiella rapae
• Predators: Ladybird beetles viz., Coccinella septumpunctata, Menochilus
sexmaculatus, Hippodamia variegata and Menochilus vicina, syrphid fly:
Sphaerophoria spp., Eristallis spp., Metasyrphis spp., Xanthogramma spp. and
Syrphus spp., Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi, Aphidoletes aphidimyza, Predatory
bird (Motacilla cospica).
• Natural enemies of mealybug:
• Parasitoid: Leptomastix dactylopii etc.
• Predators: Ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, spider, reduviid etc
• . Natural enemies of whitefly:
• Parasitoids: Cryptognatha spp. (egg), Encarsia sp, Eretmocerus sp, Chrysocharis
pentheus (nymphal)
• Predators: Mirid bug (Dicyphus hesperus), dragonfly, spider, ladybird beetle,
lacewings, mites, ants, and a species of thrips, Aleurodothrips fasciapennis.
 CASHEW
 Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis antonii Sign.
(Miridae: Heteroptera)
Biological control
 The eggs of the mosquito bug are naturally parasitized by Telenoums sp. and
Erythmelus helopeltidis. Spiders such as Oxyopes schireta, Phildippus patch
and Hiyllus spp. are efficient predators and feed on nymphs and adult
mosquito bug.
 Red ants Oecophylla smaragdina should be encouraged in cashew
plantations as it will repel the tea mosquito bug.
 During the out-break situation, the management programme should be
launched on large scale community basis.

 Mealy Bug

 Predators are very effective in controlling the mealy bug. Encourage the
predators like Chrysoperla carnea, Menochilus sexmaculatus, Coccinella
septumpunctata,and Scymnus coccivora in and around the cashew
plantations.
COFFEE
• Cocoa pod borer
• Causal agent: Conopomorpha cramerella
• Region: South east Asia & PNG
• CONTROL
• Black ants & weaver ants
• Have been used as natural enemies to reduce CPB incidence in Malaysia
and Indonesia where they prey on the larvae
• Nematodes
• In Indonesia treatment of pods with entomopathogenic nematodes and
biodegradable plastic bags significantly reduced CPB.
• Beauvaria bassiana
• Was successful in reducing CPB in Indonesia by infecting the larvae and
pupae of the CPB moth.
• Parasitic wasps have also been found to be successful but not cost effective
to produce and release.
Mirids/capsids
Causal agent: various sap sucking insects
Region: All cocoa growing regions.
• Biological control
• Mirids are a serious insect pest in areas
where cocoa is grown.
• They are sporadic and difficult to control
• It has been reported in West Africa that mirids can reduce cocoa yields by
30% in 1 year and up to 75% if left for 3 years.
• In W. Africa weaver ants and in SE Asia black ants and weaver ants have
been encouraged as natural enemies of mirids, although weaver ants are
reported to be very aggressive.
• Their nests can be transferred from plantation to plantation.

COFFER POD BORER

COFFEE POD BORER

MIRIDS
 RUBBER

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF RUBBER TREE LACE BUG BY ENDOPHYTIC PARASITOID

This lace bug attacks the leaves of rubber tree grown in nursery, in young
plantations and in productive plantations. The adult is characterized by the
reticulated and honeycombed look of hemelytra and thorax, whitish color,
presence of testaceous thorns, long legs, reticulated and tricarinated pronotum,
hemelytra extended at the back of the abdomen.

Both lace bug young stages and adults are located on the lower part of the leaves,
sucking the sap and destroying the parenchyma, making the chlorophyllian
function of the plant difficult, besides producing injuries which favor the
appearing of microorganisms.

Adult Leptopharsa heveae (Hemiptera:

Tingidae) at the abaxial face of rubber tree
foliole

The main natural enemies of lace bug recorded in literature are the green
lacewings, the entomopathogenic fungus Sporothrix insectorum, and the
parasitoid of the family Mymaridae, Erythmelus tingitiphagus .

Leptopharsa heveae’s egg parasitized by Erythmelus

tingitiphagus (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae).
 REFERENCES
1.