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INFORMATION: ANALOG AND DIGITAL

David Falconer & Halim Yanikomeroglu
Dept. of Systems and Computer Engineering
Carleton University

Topics to be Covered
nalog (continuous time, continuous amplitude) signals
nalog to digital: PCM (pulse code modulation)
Digital transmission

AnaIog SignaIs
nalog (continuous-time, continuous-amplitude) signals (like
speech) have a certain bandwidth. Their power spectrum (power
spectral density) describes how their average power is
distributed with respect to frequency.
Power
spectral
density
(watts/Hz)
0 1 4 5 6 7....
"High-fidelity speech
Telephone speech
(limited by filtering)
Bandwidth
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DigitaI and AnaIog SignaIs
Some signals (like speech and video) are inherently analog; some
(like computer data) are inherently digital.
However both analog and digital signals can be represented and
transmitted digitally.
dvantages of digital:
Reduced sensitivity to line noise, temp. drift, etc.
Lower maintenance costs than analog.
Low cost digital VLS for switching and transmission.
Uniformity in carrying voice, data, video, fax, etc.
Better encryption.
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!:Ise Code Mod:Iation (!CM)
Key points
PCM signal is developed by three steps: sampling, quantizing and
encoding.
Quantizing noise is reduced by using variable sized steps. t is independent
of line length.
s(t) s(n)
Sample at t=n Quantize Encode
011010001...
Filter
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SampIing an AnaIog SignaI
Sampling theorem: The original analog signal can be reconstructed if it is
sampled at a rate at least twice its bandwidth.
Reconstruction is by filtering samples with a low pass filter.
Sampling Samples Reconstruction
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Standard !CM in Wired TeIephony
Voice circuit bandwidth is 400 Hz.
Sampling rate is 8 KHz (samples are 15 3s apart).
Each sample is quantized to one of 56 levels.
Each quantized sample is coded into a 8-bit word.
The 8-bit words are transmitted serially (one bit at a time) over a
digital transmission channel. The bit rate is 8x8,000 = 64 Kb/s.
The bits are regenerated at digital repeaters.
The received words are decoded back to quantized samples, and
filtered to reconstruct the analog signal.
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":antization
Uniform Non:niform
nput signal nput signal
Output signal Output signal
The more steps (levels) the less quantization noise. Nonuniform quantization
(e.g. 3-law) allows a larger dynamic range (important for speech).

3Law ":antization and Coding

Standardized in North merica.
Based on a logarithmic non-uniform quantizer.
Range of amplitudes divided into 8 segments, each segment with
16 uniformly spaced levels. Segment i is double the width of
segment i-1.
8 bit word: 1 bit for sign, bits identify segment, 4 bits identify level
within segment.
Can show for n-bit word, signal to quantization noise ratio is
approximately 6n-10 [dB]; e.g., 8 dB for n=8 bits.
Most of the rest of the world uses a related logarithmic non-
uniformity, called -law.
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1 4 4
1 4 5 6 7 8
S bit
4 PCM code words, each representing 1 sample
8 bits per code word
1 bits in 15 3s
(1.544 Mb/s)
DS1 Format (3Law Co:ntries)
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Adaptive DifferentiaI !CM (AD!CM)
llows coding with a lower bit rate (with same fidelity) for speech,
based on predicting the next sample; e.g., 8 or 16 or Kb/s.
More circuits accommodated in the same transmission bandwidth.
Quant.
Predictor
Predictor
+
+ +
Coder: Decoder:
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Regenerative Repeater
Regenerative
repeater
Regenerative
repeater
mplifier/
equalizer
Regenerator
Timing circuit
Structure of a regenerative
repeater:
By appropriate repeater design and inter-repeater spacing, the effect of
occasional bit errors due to noise can be controlled. Received signal quality is
essentially independent of distance.
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!CM Transmission Formats and Spectra
..... 1 0 1 1 .......
:
Time Frequency
0 T T T -4/T -1/: -/T -1/T 0 1/T /T 1/: 4/T
0 T T T 4T -/T -/T -1/T 0 1/T /T /T
0 T T T 4T -4/T -/T -1/T 0 1/T /T 4/T
0 T T T 4T -1/T 1/T
Min. bandwidth
Unipolar RZ
Unipolar NRZ
Bipolar NRZ
Bandlimited
Power spectra
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M:ItiIeveI Transmission
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 T T T 4T
Binary:
L=
4-level:
L=4
Bit rate =
1
%
log

Bandwidth proportional to 1/% for NRZ signals
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andwidth Req:ired for DigitaI Transmission
required bandwidth is approximately
(bit rate)/(log

L) for L-level transmission.

more levels less bandwidth, but greater sensitivity to noise.
Examples:
64 Kb/s PCM requires about 64 KHz for binary transmission, KHz for 4-
level transmission.
14.4 Kb/s modem uses a symbol rate 1/T=400 Hz, and the equivalent of
L=.
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ChanneI Capacity
Shannon channel capacity formula:
Highest possible transmission bit rate R, for reliable communication in a
given bandwidth W Hz, with given signal to noise ratio, SNR, is
R=Wlog

(1+SNR) bits/s
R/W = 0. SNR [dB] bits/s/Hz (for high SNR)
ssumptions and qualifications:
Gaussian distributed noise added to the signal by the channel, highly complex
modulation, coding and decoding methods.
n typical practical situations, the above formula may be roughly modified by
dividing SNR by a factor of about 5 to 10.
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S:mmary
ll information signals can be represented, switched, stored and
transmitted digitally.
We have discussed PCM systems and their key elements:
sampling
quantizing
coding
digital transmission
We have discussed the related concepts of:
the telephone set
bandwidth
the sampling theorem
signal to quantization noise ratio
channel capacity.
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More Information
R. Haughton, "The Telecommunications Mosaic, Vol. , (sections .1, ., ., .4),
Vol. , (sections .1, ., ., .4)
E.B. Carne, "Telecommunications Primer, Prentice-Hall, 15, Chapters ,,4.
R.L. Freeman, "Telecommunications System Engineering, (nd ed.), Wiley, 18.
Chapter .
J. Sklar, "Digital Communications, Chapters and 7