BTT 204

PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY
Module 1: Cell organelles and
Biomolecules
• General features of the cell, organelles and macromolecular
assemblies -, importance of buffers in cellular mechanism and pH
regulation, Henderson – Hasselbalch equation, Introduction to
biomolecules. Role of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids
in cellular functions.
General features of the cell
• Cell is the structural and functional unit of life

• Cells contains all necessary infrastructures to perform all functions.

• Organs have specific tissues and each tissue is composed of cells.

• Higher eukaryote has multiple organs to perform specific functions such as liver,
kidney and heart

• Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665

Cells perform several mechanical activities.

A cell generates a variety of chemical reactions.

It also acquires and utilizes energy.

The cell stores hereditary information.

It is capable of self-regulation.

Every cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane

Cell contains many macromolecules such as proteins ,DNA,RNA, as well as

many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites.
• A cell can adapt to changes in environment

• Cells maintain homeostasis

• They reproduce by cell division

• Based on cellular structure, cells are classified as prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells.

• prokaryotes are single cells where as eukaryotes are either single cells
or part of multi-cellular tissues system.
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism

• Cell interior contains different organelles

• Cell is capable of metabolizing nutrients

• Cell can replicate

Structure of Prokaryotic cells

General characteristics of a procaryotic cell

• A prokaryotic cell is much simpler and smaller than eukarotic cells.
• It lacks membrane bound organelles including nucleus.
• They grow rapidly and are widespread in nature
• They are unicellular
• They are versatile
• They are motile
• Reproduction-binary fission
• Gram positive or gram negative
• Aerobic or anaerobic
• Autotrophs or heterotrophs
• Lack nucleus and complex organelles

• Size is very small, app 0.5 to 1 micrometer in diameter

• Shape-spherical, rod, helical

• Arranged in pairs, clusters, chains

Structure of a bacterial cell
Structure
• Flagella
• Present outside the cell wall
• Hair like helical appendages protrude through the cell wall
• Locomotion
• Composed of 3 parts- basal body, hook and filament
• Made up of protein called flagellin
• Monotrichous, peritrichous, amphitrichous
• Pili
• Seen external
• Hollow, nonhelical, filamentous appendages
• Thinner, shorter and numerous than flagella
• F pilus serve as a part of entry of genetic material
• Some allows pathogenic bacteria to attach to epithelial cells
• Capsules
• External
• Viscous layer around cell wall
• Provide protection against temporary drying
• Block attachment of bacteriophages
• Made up of polysaccharides
• Loosely attached- slime layer
• Cell wall
• Give rigid structure and shape
• Made up of peptidoglycan
• Gram positive-
• Gram negative-
• Cytoplasmic membrane
• Composed of phospholipis and proteins
• Plasma membrane- selectively permeable membrane
• Helps in electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
• Cytoplasm
• Granular in appearance, rich in cytoplasm
• Contain inclusion bodies,store excess food and energy
• Nuclear material
• Lack true nucleus
• Nucleoid
• lack nuclear membrane
• Ribosomes
• 70 S
• Bacterial Plasmid
• Plasmid are widely been used for cloning of foreign DNA into the
bacteria as host strain.
• Origin of replication
• Antibiotic resistant
• Self replicating
Eukaryotic Cells
• The eukaryotic cells are much more complex and it contains many
membrane bound organelles to perform specific functions.
• It contains a nucleus isolated from cytosol and enclosed in a well
defined plasma membrane
Eukaryotic Cells
• Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
1.Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the
nuclear membrane.
2.The cell has mitochondria.
3.Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic
cell.
4.A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.
5.The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
6.The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
7.The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all
the genetic information.
cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells.
They are jelly-like substances, found between the cell
membrane and nucleus. They are mainly composed of
water, organic and inorganic compounds. The
cytoplasm is one of the essential components of the
cell, where all the cell organelles are embedded. These
cell organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for
controlling all metabolic activity taking place within the
cell and are the site for most of the chemical reactions
within a cell.
• Cytosol
• Cytosol is the liquid part filled inside the cell and it contains water,
salt, macromolecules (protein, lipid, RNA).
• Nucleus
• Nucleus is the central processing unit of cell and homologus to the
processor in a typical computer .
• The liquid filled inside nucleus is called as nucleoplasm.
• It is a viscous liquid containing nucleotides and enzymes to perform
replication, transcription, DNA damage repair etc.
• It contains genetic material (DNA) in a complex fashion involving
several proteins (histones) to pack into nuclear bodies or
chromosomes.
• The chromatin in eukaryotic nucleus is divided into euchromatin or
heterochromatin.
• Euchromatin is a part of chromatin where DNA is loosely packed and
it is transcriptionally active to form mRNA where as Heterochromatin
is more densily packed and it is transcriptionally inactive.
• Nucleus in eukarytotic cells are present in a double layer of
membrane known as nuclear envelope
• Outer membrane of nuclear envelope is continuous with the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and has ribosome attached to it.
• The space between two membrane is called as perinuclear space.
• Nuclear envelope is often has nuclear pore and as per calculation an
average nucleus has 3000-4000 pores per nuclear envelope.
• The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains
DNA and proteins.
• The nuclear envelop consists of two layers- the outer
membrane and the inner membrane. Both the
membranes are permeable to ions, molecules, and RNA
material.
• Ribosome production also takes place inside the
nucleus.
Plasma membrane
• The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or
Cytoplasmic Membrane. It is a selectively permeable membrane
of the cells, which is composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins.
• The plasma membrane is present both in plant and animal cells. It
functions as the selectively permeable membrane, by permitting
the entry of selective materials in and out of the cell according to
the requirement. In an animal cell, the cell membrane functions
by providing shape and protects the inner contents of the cell.
Based on the structure of the plasma membrane, it is regarded as
the fluid mosaic model. According to the fluid mosaic model, the
plasma membranes are subcellular structures, made of a lipid
bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded.
• Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside
environment.
• It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the
exchange of substances in and out of the cell.
• Cell Wall
• A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant
cell. It is, however, absent in animal cells.
• It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell
interaction.
• It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any
injury or pathogen attacks.
• It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins,
proteins, etc.
• Ribosomes
• These are the main site for protein synthesis and are
composed of proteins and ribonucleic acids.
• Mitochondria
• These are also known as “powerhouse of cells” because
they produce energy.
• It consists of an outer membrane and an inner
membrane. The inner membrane is divided into folds
called cristae.
• They help in the regulation of cell metabolism.
• actively involved in the generation of ATP to run the cellular activities
• Mitochondria is a double layered membrane bound organelle
• Outer membrane is smooth and cover the complete organelle with
large number of integral protein, known as porin.
• Porin allows free movement of molecules less than 5000da within and
outside mitochondria.
• Where as larger molecules or proteins moves into the mitochondria
through trasnporters involving signal peptides known as
“mitochondrial targeting sequence”
• Inner membrane is folded into membrane projections to form cristae.
Cristae occupies major area of membrane surface and house
machinary for anaerobic oxidation and electron transport chain to
produce ATP.
• between the inner and outer membrane, known as intermembrane
space
• inside the inner membrane known as matrix
• Matrix is the liquid part present in the inner most of mitochondria
and it contains ribosome, DNA, RNA, enzymes to run kreb cycle and
other proteins.
• Mitochondrial DNA is circular and it has full machinery to synthesize
its own RNA
• Functions of mitochondria-
• 1. Production of ATP
• 2. Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in immune cells to kill
infectious agents.
• 3. Role in programmed cell death or “apoptosis”
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is a network of small, tubular structures.
• The vesicular network starts from nuclear membrane and spread
throughout the cytosol constitutes endoplasmic reticulum
• Itis a network of phospholipid membranes that form hollow tubes, flattened
sheets, and round sacs. These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are
called cisternae.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum is of two types:
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum contains ribosomes.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is
therefore smooth.
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum is named so because
of its appearance.
• It is a series of connected flattened sacs having several
ribosomes on its outer surface, hence the name.
• It synthesizes and secretes proteins in the
liver, hormones and other substances in the glands.
• Rough ER is prominent in cells where protein synthesis
happens (such as hepatocytes)
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:
• The majority of the functions of rough ER is associated
with protein synthesis.
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays a vital role
in protein folding.
• Also ensures quality control (regarding correct protein
folding).
• The second most important function after protein
synthesis and protein folding is protein sorting.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum, on the other hand,
does not have ribosomes.
• The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a tubular form.
• It participates in the production of phospholipids, the
chief lipids in cell membranes and are essential in the
process of metabolism.
• Smooth ER transports the products of the rough ER to
other cellular organelles, especially the Golgi apparatus.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:
• Smooth ER is responsible for the synthesis of essential
lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol.
• Smooth ER is also responsible for the production and
secretion of steroid hormones.
• It is also responsible for the metabolism of
carbohydrates.
• The smooth ER store and releases calcium ions. These
are quite important for the nervous system and
muscular systems.
• SER has many different functions, some of which
include lipid synthesis, calcium ion storage, and drug
detoxification
• Functions of endoplasmic reticulum:
• 1. Synthesis of steroid hormone in gonad cells.
• 2. Detoxification
• 3. Ca2+ sequesteration
• 4. Synthesis of protein, phospholipid and carbohydrate.
• 5. Protein sorting to different organelles.
• 6. Protein modifications such as glycosylation etc
• Transport: Molecules such as proteins, can move from
place to place inside the ER, much like on an
intracellular highway.

• Synthesis: Ribosomes that are attached to the ER,

similar to unattached ribosomes, make proteins. Lipids
are also produced in the ER
Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi Apparatus is also termed as Golgi Complex or
golgi body
• It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is mainly
composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches
called cisternae.
• This cell organelle is primarily responsible
for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and
lipids to targeted destinations.
• Golgi Apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of a cell
and is present in both plant and animal cells.
• Golgi Bodies- Golgi bodies are first visualized by a metallic stain
invented by Camillo golgi
• It is made of flattend, disk like cisternae arranged in a stacked manner
to give 3 distinct zones .
• Cis-face recieves material or vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum,
medial golgi is the actual place where protein are covalently modified
with the sugar.
• Trans golgi is the face of golgi towards plasma membrane and this
site sorts vesicle for their destinated organelles or plasma membrane
• Functions of golgi bodies
• 1. Protein sorting 2. Protein modifications (Glycosylation) 3. Proteolysis
• Its main function is the packaging and secretion of proteins.
It receives proteins from Endoplasmic Reticulum. It
packages it into membrane-bound vesicles, which are then
transported to various destinations, such as lysosomes,
plasma membrane or secretion. They also take part in the
transport of lipids and the formation of lysosomes.
• Post-translational modification and enzymatic processing
occur near the membrane surface in Golgi bodies, e.g.
phosphorylation, glycosylation, etc.
• Golgi apparatus is the site for the synthesis of various
glycolipids, sphingomyelin, etc.
• Golgi Apparatus
• It is made up of flat disc-shaped structures called
cisternae.
• It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells
of plants.
• They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the
nucleus.
• It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins
and glycolipids.
Ribosome
• A ribosome is a complex of RNA and protein and is, therefore,
known as a ribonucleoprotein. It is composed of two subunits
– smaller and larger.
• The smaller subunit is where the mRNA binds and is decoded,
and in the larger subunit, the amino acids get added.
• Both of the subunits contain both protein and ribonucleic acid
components.
• The two subunits are joined to each other by interactions
between the rRNAs in one subunit and proteins in the other
subunit.
• Ribosomes are located inside the cytosol found in the
plant cell and animal cells.
• The important ribosome function includes:
1.It assembles amino acids to form proteins that are
essential to carry out cellular functions.
2.The DNA produces mRNA by the process of DNA
transcription.
3.The mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and transported
to the cytoplasm for the process of protein synthesis.
4.The ribosomal subunits in the cytoplasm are bound
around mRNA polymers. Ribosomes are the
site of protein synthesis.
5.The proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm are utilized in
the cytoplasm itself, the proteins synthesized by bound
ribosomes are transported outside the cell.
• Cytoskeleton

• The cytoskeleton is present inside the cytoplasm, which

consists of microfilaments, microtubules, and fibres
• It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous
structures that run throughout the cytoplasm, from the
nucleus to the plasma membrane.
• It is found in all living cells, notably in the eukaryotes.
The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of different types
of proteins that can divide rapidly or disassemble
depending on the requirement of the cells.
• A cytoskeleton structure comprises the following types
of fibres:
• Microfilaments
• Microtubules
• Intermediate Filaments
• Microtubules
• Microtubules appear like small, hollow, round tubes with
a diameter of about 24 nanometers.
• They are made up of a protein, tubulin. Thirteen
tubulins link to form a single tube.
• Microtubules are very dynamic structures, which reveal
that they can change quickly. They keep growing or
shrinking steadily. These help in transporting cellular
materials and dividing chromosomes during cell division
.
• Microfilaments
• Microfilaments are thread-like protein fibres, 3-6 nm in
diameter.
• They are particularly found in muscle cells. They consist
of the protein actin, responsible for muscle contraction.
These are also responsible for cellular movements
including cytokinesis, contraction, and gliding.
• Intermediate Filaments
• The intermediate filaments are about 10 nm in diameter
and provide tensile strength to the cell. They facilitate
the formation of keratins and neurofilaments.
• Myosin
• These interact with actin protein and are responsible for
muscle contractions. They also perform cytokinesis,
exocytosis, and endocytosis.
• Cytoskeleton Functions
• The important cytoskeleton functions are mentioned
below:
1.It provides shape and support to the cell.
2.It helps in the formation of vacuoles.
3.It holds different cell organelles in place.
4.It assists in cell signalling.
5.It supports intracellular movements like the migration
of cell organelles, transportation of vesicles in and out
of the cell, etc.
• Help to anchor the organelles, and stimulate the cell
movement.
• The primary functions include providing mechanical
resistance to the cell against deformation, the
contractile nature of the filaments helps in motility
during cytokinesis.

• organizes the organelles and facilitates transport of

molecules, cell division and cell signalling.
• Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are an important cell organelle found within
eukaryotic animal cells
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles and the
area within the membrane is called the lumen, which
contains the hydrolytic enzymes and other cellular
debris.
• They are known as “suicidal bags” because they
possess hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein, lipids,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
• The pH level of the lumen lies between 4.5 and 5.0,
which makes it quite acidic. It is almost comparable to
the function of acids found in the stomach.
• Besides breaking down biological polymers, lysosomes
are also involved in various other cell processes such as
counting discharged materials, energy metabolism, cell
signalling, and restoration of the plasma membrane.
• The sizes of lysosomes vary, with the largest ones
measuring in more at than 1.2 μm. But they typically
range from 0.1 μm to 0.6 μm.
• lysosomes work as the waste discarding structures of the
cell by processing undesirable materials and degrading
them, both from the exterior of the cell and waste
constituents inside the cell.
• But sometimes, the digestive enzymes may end up
damaging the lysosomes themselves, and this can cause
the cell to die. This is termed as autolysis, where “auto”
means “self” and “lysis” means “the disintegration of the
cell by the destruction of its cell membrane“.
• Hence, lysosomes are known as “Suicidal Bags” of the cell.
• The key function of lysosomes is digestion and removal
of waste. Cellular debris or foreign particles are pulled in
to the cell through the process of endocytosis. The
process of endocytosis happens when the cell
membrane falls in on itself (invagination), creating a
vacuole or a pouch around the external contents and
then bringing those contents into the cell.
• On the other hand, discarded wastes and other
substances originating from within the cell is digested
by the process of autophagocytosis or autophagy. The
process of autophagy involves disassembly or
degradation of the cellular components through a
natural, regulated mechanism.
• Plastids
• These are double-membraned structures and are found
only in plant cells. These are of three types:
• Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and is involved in
photosynthesis.
• Chromoplast that contains a pigment called carotene
that provides the plants yellow, red, or orange colours.
• Leucoplasts that are colourless and store oil, fats,
carbohydrates, or proteins.
Chloroplast
• Chloroplasts are found in plant, algae and other lower invertebrates such as euglena.
• Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles, which usually
vary in their shape They are present in mesophyll cells of leaves,
which store chloroplasts and other carotenoid pigments.
• These pigments are responsible for trapping light energy for
photosynthesis

• chloroplast has outer membrane, an inner membrane and then light pigment
containing inner most thylakoid membrane
• Outer membrane is porous to the small molecules but protein or large molecule are
transported by TOC (translocon on the outer chloroplast membrane) complex.
• Movement of material passed through outer membrane enters into the inner
membrane through TIC (translocon on the inner chloroplast membrane) complex. In
between outer and inner membrane is intermembrane space filled with aqueous liquid.
• The inner membrane of the chloroplast further folds into flattend membrane system
known as thylakoids.
• The inner membrane encloses a space called the stroma.
• the stroma of chloroplast also contains a double-stranded circular
DNA, enzymes which are required for the synthesis of carbohydrates
and proteins.

• Thylakoid membranes are arranged like stack of coin to form granum

• thylakoids of different grana are connected by flat membranous
tubules known as stromal lamella.

• The photosynthsis machinery such as light absorbing pigments, electron carriers and
ATP synthesizing machinery is present on inner membrane as intergral protein complex.
•
• Thylakoid membrane contains photosynthetic green colored pigment chlorophyll.
Microbodies
• A microbody is a cell organelle present in both plant and animal cells.
Glyoxysomes, peroxisomes are included in the microbodies family. In
Vertebrates, microbodies are prevalent in the kidney and liver cells.
• Structure
• Microbodies are present in the cytoplasm of a cell so they are known as
cytosomes. They are very small in size ~0.2-1.5 μm and can be seen
under the electron microscope.
• Some of the common characteristics of microbodies are:
• They are vesicular and mostly spherical in shape
• They are enclosed in a single membrane of a phospholipid bilayer
• The intracellular matrix contains proteins and enzymes
• They do not contain separate DNA
• Function
• Different types of microbodies perform various specific
functions.
• Microbodies take part in various biochemical reactions in
the cell
• The enzymes present in microbodies facilitate various
essential reactions, e.g. breakdown of fats, amino acids,
alcohol, etc.
• They are involved in the photorespiration in plants
• Detoxification of peroxides occurs in microbodies
• Peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes are a membrane-bound organelle present
in the eukaryotic cells. They take part in various
oxidative processes.
• They take part in lipid metabolism and catabolism of D-
amino acids, polyamines and bile acids. The reactive
oxygen species such as peroxides produced in the
process is converted to water by various enzymes like
peroxidase and catalase.
• In plants, photorespiration occurs in peroxisomes.
• Glyoxysomes
• Glyoxysomes are specialized peroxisomes. Their main
function is to convert fatty acid to carbohydrate. They
are present in plants and fungi. They are prevalent in
the germinating seeds in their fat-storing tissues.
Centrosomes
• The centrosome organelle is made up of two mutually
perpendicular structures known as centrioles. Each
centriole is composed of 9 equally spaced peripheral
fibrils of tubulin protein, and the fibril is a set of
interlinked triplets. The core part of the centriole is
known as a hub and is proteinaceous. The hub connects
the peripheral fibrils via radial spoke, which is made up
of proteins. The centrioles from the basal bodies of the
cilia and flagella give rise to spindle fibres during cell
division.
Vacoules
• Vacuoles are mostly defined as storage bubbles of
irregular shapes which are found in cells. They are fluid-
filled organelles enclosed by a membrane.
• The vacuole stores the food or a variety of nutrients that
a cell might need to survive. In addition to this, it also
stores waste products. The waste products are eventually
thrown out by vacuoles. Thus, the rest of the cell is
protected from contamination.
• The animal and plant cells have different size and
number of vacuoles. Compared to the animals, plant cells
have larger vacuoles.
Cilia and flagella

• Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures, present outside the cell
wall and work like oars to either move the cell or the extracellular fluid.
• Flagella are slightly bigger and are responsible for the cell movements.
• The eukaryotic flagellum structurally differs from its prokaryotic
counterpart. The core of the cilium and flagellum is called an axoneme,
which contains nine pairs of gradually arranged peripheral
microtubules and a set of central microtubules running parallel to the
axis.
• The central tubules are interconnected by a bridge and are embedded
by a central sheath.
• One of the peripheral microtubular pairs is also interconnected to the
central sheath by a radial spoke.
• Hence there are a total of 9 radial spokes. The cilia and flagella
emerge from centriole-like structures called basal bodies.
Organelles of Vesicular Trafficking
System
• The main function of these organelles is to manage the distribution of material (food
particles or proteins) through out the cells.
• 3 different organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus and lysosome co
ordinately work together to maintains vesicular transport of material across the cell .
• Eukaryotic cells takes up the solid material from outside the cells through a process called
“endocytosis” where as uptake of liquid is through a process called as “pinocytosis”.
• Similarly material is secreted out of the cells through “exocytosis”. In addition, intravesicular
system delivers protein synthesized in endoplasmic reticulum to different organelles.
• During endocytosis, material present outside the cells binds to the cells surface through cell
surface receptor and trapped it in a membraneous structure called as endosome. Endosomal
vesicles are fused with the lysosomes to form late endosome. In late endosome, with the
help of lysosomal enzymes material is digested and then endosome is fused with the golgi
bodies and deliver the content for further distribution. In the similar manner, during
secretion, vesicles originate from golgi bodies and fused with the plasma membrane to
release the content outside of the cell.
• Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall,
Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-membrane-bound
cell organelles. They are present both in the
prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell.
• Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole,
Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum are
single membrane-bound organelles present only in a
eukaryotic cell.
• Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus,
mitochondria and chloroplast are double membrane-
bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
Importance of buffers in cellular
mechanism and pH regulation
• A buffer is an aqueous solution made up of a weak acid and its salt (acid
buffer) or a weak base and its salt (basic buffer).
• popular buffering agents include phosphates, carbonates, and ammonium
salts.

• When a tiny amount of strong acid or base is given to it, its pH varies
very little, and it is thus used to keep a solution’s pH stable.
• Buffer solutions are utilised in a variety of chemical processes. In nature,
a buffer solution can be found in the form of blood.
• The pH of human blood is 7.4 in its normal state.
• The purpose of a buffer in a biological system is to maintain intracellular
and extracellular pH within a very narrow range and resist changes in pH
in the presence of internal and external influences.
• the ability to prevent large changes in pH is an
important property of most intact biological organisms.
• The cytoplasmic fluid which contains dissolved proteins,
organic substrates, and inorganic salts resist excessive
changes in pH.
• The blood plasma is a highly effective buffer solution
almost ideally designed to keep the range of pH of the
blood between 7.2 to 7.4.
• Almost every biological process is pH-dependent; a small change in
pH produces a large change in the rate of the process.
• True both for reactions occurring with or without H+ ions.
• The enzymes and many of their substrates, contain ionizable groups
with characteristic pKa values.
• The protonated amino and carboxyl groups of amino acids and the
phosphate groups of nucleotides, for example, function as weak acids;
their ionic state is determined by the pH of the surrounding medium.
• Cells/ organisms maintain a specific and constant cytosolic pH,
usually near pH 7, keeping biomolecules in their optimal ionic state.
• In multicellular organisms, the pH of extracellular fluids is also tightly
regulated.
• Constancy of pH is achieved primarily by biological buffers.
• Buffers act as “Shock absorbers” against sudden
changes of pH
• If a buffer solution is composed of weak acid HA and its
salt BA, they ionize as follows:
• HA <—> H+ + A–
• BA <—> B+ + A–

• The respiratory tract can adjust the blood pH upward in minutes by

exhaling CO2 from the body.
• The renal system can also adjust blood pH through the excretion of
H+ and the conservation of bicarbonate, but this process takes hours
to days to have an effect.
• Bicarbonate buffer, Protein buffer-ECF
• Phosphate buffer, Protein buffer -ICF
• Hemoglobin buffer-RBC
Biological buffers
• Refer pg 48 J.L.Jain
• Red blood cells play an important role in the removal of excess
hydrogen ions in the body. This is achieved by a carbonic
acid/hydrogencarbonate buffering system.
• This buffer system can be represented as an equation
Role of carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids and nucleic acids in cellular
functions
Role of carbohydrates
• Most widely distributed and abundant organic compound on earth
• Act as energy reserves
• Act as fuel for cellular reactions
• Most abundant dietary source of energy
• Act as intermediates in the biosynthesis of fats and proteins
• Ribose and deoxy ribose sugars form the structural framework of RNA
and DNA
• Linked to proteins and lipids that play important role in cell reactions
• Stored as glycogen in animals and starch in plants
• Aid in regulation of nerve tissues
• Help to form surface antigens, receptors, vitamins and antibiotics
• Form structural and protective component in cell wall of plants and
microorganisms
• In animals, they are important constituent of connective tissues
• Participate in biological transport, cell cell communication, and
activation of growth factors
• Help in modulation of immune system
• Cellulose forms the basic structure of cell wall of plants, which provide
strength
• Chitin is present in fungi
• Hemicellulose, lignin present in cell wall of plants
• Function also as antigens. many antigens are glycoproteins
• They act as hormones. Hormones like FSH and LH are glycoproteins
• Heparin act as anticoagulant
• Hyaluronic acid is present between the joints act as synovial fluid.
Role of proteins
• Most abundant organic molecule in living systems
• 50% of cell dry weight is protein
• They perform static and dynamic functions
• Act as structural components such as keratin of hair andnail, collagen
of bone
• They are vital for growth and repair
• they are involved in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide eg:Hb
• They are involved in blood clotting through thrombin, fibrinogen, and
other protein factors
• They perform hereditary transmission by nucleoproteins
• Ovalbumin is a storage protein
• Actin and myosin act as contractile proteins important for muscle
contraction
• They act as defence systems eg: antibodies
• Act as enzymes
• Act as hormones
• Act as receptor proteins
• Help in movement or locomotion eg: flagellin
Role of lipids
• They function in storing and providing energy
• Act as structural components of membranes eg; phospholipids
• Act as chemical messengers
• Found in most plants and animals
• used as energy storage and work as insulator
• used as protective coating in plant leaves from drying up
• Act as hormones
• layers of subcutaneous fat under the skin also help in insulation and
protection from cold
•
• They give mechanical protection eg: adipose tissue
• Fat reserves provide buoyancy for aquatic animals
• Act as surfactants
• Phosphatidyl serine play a role in apoptosis
• Lauric acid is a medium chain fatty acid act as antibacterial agent
• Cholesterol act as precursor for synthesis of vitamin D
• Role of nucleic acids

• Storage of genetic information

• storage of chemical energy
• Form part of coenzymes
• act as second messengers in signal transduction eg: cAMP
• Take part in protein synthesis
• Sequences of nitrogen bases determine the protein development in new cells
• mRNA act as template for protein synthesis
• Some rRNA have catalytic and coenzyme functions, along with protein they form
ribosomes
• tRNA help in the transfer of aminoacids from the cytoplasm to the site of protein
synthesis.