Cell Structure

Chapter 4
 Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells

2. Cells are the smallest living things

3. Cells arise only by division of previously existing cells

 Cell Structure
• Cellular structure is organized in all cell types
• Basic features of all cells
‒ Plasma membrane
‒ Semifluid substance called cytosol
• Water + dissolved substances
‒ Chromosomes (carry genes)
‒ Ribosomes (make proteins)
 Plasma Membrane
• The plasma
membrane is a fluid
mosaic
‒ sheet of lipids with
embedded proteins
• Bilayer of
phospholipids is
liquid
‒ Like the soap of a
soap bubble
 Plasma Membrane
• Lipid bilayer forms spontaneously whenever a
collection of phospholipids is placed in water
 Plasma Membrane
• The interior of the lipid bilayer is completely
nonpolar
‒ no water-soluble molecules can cross through it
‒ cholesterol is also found in the interior
• Important in maintaining the integrity of the
membrane
 Plasma Membrane
• Another major component of the membrane is a
collection of membrane proteins

‒ some proteins form channels that span the membrane

• these are called transmembrane proteins

‒ other proteins are integrated into the structure of the

membrane
• for example, cell surface proteins are attached to the outer
surface of the membrane and act as markers
 Cell size
• Cell size is limited by the surface-to-volume
ratio
‒ as cell size increases, the volume grows more
rapidly than surface area
• a cell’s surface provides the interior’s only
opportunity to interact with the environment
Large cells have far less surface for each unit of volume than do small cells.
• Why is it important to keep the surface area
to volume ratio low?
 Cell Types
• There are two major types of cells
‒ prokaryotic
• lacks a nucleus and does not have an extensive
system of internal membranes
• all bacteria and archaea have this cell type
‒ eukaryotic
• has a nucleus and has internal membrane-bounded
compartments
• all organisms other than bacteria or archaea have
this cell type
 Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotes are the simplest cellular organisms

‒ have a plasma membrane surrounding a cytoplasm

without interior compartments

‒ a cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane

• the cell wall is composed of different molecules in different
groups

‒ some bacteria have an additional layer called the

capsule that surrounds the cell wall
Organization of a prokaryotic
cell
 Prokaryotic Cells
• The interior of the prokaryotic cell shows simple
organization

‒ cytoplasm is uniform with little or no internal support

framework

‒ ribosomes (sites for protein synthesis) are scattered

throughout the cytoplasm

‒ nucleoid region (an area of the cell where DNA is

localized)
• not membrane-bound, so not a true nucleus
 Prokaryotic Cells
• Other structures sometimes found in prokaryotes
relate to locomotion, feeding, or genetic exchange

‒ flagellum (plural, flagellae) is a threadlike structure of

protein fibers that extends from the cell surface
• may be one or many
• aids in locomotion and feeding

‒ pilus (plural, pili) is a short flagellum

• aids in attaching to substrates and in exchanging genetic
information between cells
 Eukaryotic Cells
• Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex
than prokaryotic cells

‒ have a plasma membrane encasing a cytoplasm

• internal membranes form compartments called
organelles
• the cytoplasm is semi-fluid and contains a network
of protein fibers that form a scaffold called a
cytoskeleton
 Eukaryotic Cells
• Not all eukaryotic cells are alike
‒ the cells of plants, fungi, and many protists have
a cell wall beyond the plasma membrane
‒ all plants and many protists contain organelles
called chloroplasts
‒ plants contain a central vacuole
‒ animal cells contain centrioles
Generic Animal Cell
Generic Plant Cell
• Make a list of structures found in a plant cell
that are NOT found in an animal cell and vice
versa.
 Nucleus
• The nucleus is the command and control center of
the cell
‒ also stores hereditary information

• The nuclear surface is bounded by a double-

membrane called the nuclear envelope
‒ groups of proteins form openings called nuclear pores
• permit proteins and RNA to pass in and out of the nucleus
 Nucleus

• DNA of eukaryotes is packaged into

segments and associated with a protein
‒ this complex is called a chromosome
• the proteins enable the DNA to be wound tightly so
it appears condensed
‒ the condensed or chromosome form of DNA occurs during
cell division
• the DNA is uncoiled into strands called chromatin
that are no longer visible as segments when the cell
is not dividing
‒ protein synthesis occurs when the DNA is in the chromatin
form
 Nucleus

• The nucleus is the site for the subunits of the

ribosome to be synthesized

‒ the nucleolus is a dark-staining region of the

nucleus
• it contains the genes that code for the rRNA
(ribosomal RNA) that makes up the ribosomal
subunits
• the subunits leave the nucleus via the nuclear pores
and the final ribosome is assembled in the
cytoplasm
Nucleus
 Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are complexes of ribosomal RNA
and protein
• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations
‒ In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
‒ On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
• Structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic
ribosomes is slightly different but functions are
the same
Ribosomes
 Endomembrane System
• Endomembrane system regulates protein traffic
and performs metabolic functions in the cell
• Components of the endomembrane system
‒ Nuclear envelope
‒ Endoplasmic reticulum
‒ Golgi apparatus
‒ Lysosomes
‒ Vacuoles
‒ Plasma membrane
• Components are either continuous or connected
through transfer by vesicles
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an
extensive system of internal membranes

‒ some of the membranes form channels and

interconnections

‒ other portions become isolated spaces enclosed

by membranes
• these spaces are known as vesicles
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Region of the ER covered in embedded ribosomes is the
rough ER
‒ secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to
carbohydrates)
‒ Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes
‒ Is a membrane factory for the cell
• Region of ER that contains no embedded ribosomes is called
the smooth ER
‒ Synthesizes lipids
‒ Metabolizes carbohydrates
‒ Detoxifies drugs and poisons
‒ Stores calcium ions
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi Apparatus
• After synthesis in the ER, newly-made
molecules pass to the Golgi bodies
‒ Golgi bodies are flattened stacks of membranes
scattered throughout the cell
• collectively called the Golgi complex
‒ numbers vary depending on the cell
‒ function is to collect, package, and distribute
molecules manufactured in the cell
Golgi Complex
ER and Golgi complex

• The ER and Golgi

complex function
together as a
transport system in
the cell
 Lysosomes
• Golgi complex also gives rise to lysosomes
‒ membrane-bound structures that contain
enzymes that break down macromolecules and
old cell components
• worn-out cell parts are broken down and their
components recycled to form new parts
• particles that the cell has ingested are also digested
Lysosomes
 Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
‒ Solution inside a vacuole differs in composition
from the cytosol

• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis

• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant
cells, hold organic compounds and water
Vaculoles
 Peroxisomes
• Peroxisomes are vesicles that isolate
certain types of chemical reactions
‒ the reactions that are confined to these
organelles function to
1. detoxify harmful by-products of metabolism
‒ Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and then convert
it to water
2. convert fats to carbohydrates in plants seeds for
growth
Organelles That Contain DNA
• Eukaryotic cells contain cell-like organelles
that, besides the nucleus, also contain DNA
‒ these organelles appear to have been derived
from ancient bacteria that were then
assimilated by the eukaryotic cell
‒ they include the following organelles:
mitochondria and chloroplasts
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are cellular
powerhouses

• Contain the chemical

reactions called oxidative
metabolism that extract
energy from organic
molecules

• Surrounded by two
membranes
 Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are the sites for photosynthesis

• Also surrounded by two membranes

 Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts

• They cannot be grown free of the cell

‒ they are totally dependent on the cells within
which they occur
 Endosymbiont Theory
• The theory of endosymbiosis

‒ states that some organelles evolved from a symbiosis in

which one cell of a prokaryotic species was engulfed by
and lived inside of a cell of another species of
prokaryote

‒ the engulfed species provided their hosts with

advantages because of special metabolic activities

‒ the modern organelles of mitochondria and chloroplasts

are believed to be found in the eukaryotic descendants
of these endosymbiotic prokaryotes
Endosymbiont Theory
 Evidence for Endosymbiont
‒
Theory
both mitochondria and chloroplasts possess circular DNA
that is not found elsewhere in the cell
‒ mitochondria are about the same size as modern bacteria
‒ the cristae in mitochondria resemble folded membranes in
modern bacteria
‒ mitochondrial ribosomes are similar to modern, bacterial
ribosomes in size and structure
‒ mitochondria divide by fission, just like modern bacteria
‒ thylakoid membranes within chloroplasts same as
membranes within cyanobacteria
‒ immune system responds to mitochondria the same as to
bacteria
‒ Long-term antibiotic use damages cells because it damages
mitochondria
• What’s the difference between the
mitochondria/chloroplast and organelles of
the endomembrane system?
 Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is comprised of an internal
framework of protein fibers that
‒ anchor organelles to fixed locations
‒ support the shape of the cell
‒ help organize ribosomes and enzymes needed for
synthesis activities

• The cytoskeleton is dynamic and its components

are continually being rearranged
 Cytoskeleton
• Three different types of protein fibers comprise the
cytoskeleton
‒ microfilaments
• long, slender microfilaments made up of the protein actin
• Assemble/reassemble to create movement of cytoplasm
• In animal cells, pinch cell in half during cell division
‒ microtubules
• hollow tubes made up of the protein tubulin
• move chromosomes during cell division
• Make up cilia and flagella
‒ intermediate filaments
• thick ropes of intertwined protein
• Provide scaffolding within cell to resist compression
Cytoskeleton
 Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
‒ Centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”
• Centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with
nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring
‒ Centrioles are complex structures that assemble
microtubules in animal cells and the cells of most
protists
• they anchor locomotory structures, such as flagella or cilia
• they assemble microtubules and are usually located near
the nuclear envelope
 Cilia and Flagella
• Cilia and flagella are microtubule-containing
extensions projecting from some cells
• Flagella are limited to one or a few per cell,
while cilia occur in large numbers on cell
surfaces
 Cell Walls
• Cell walls
‒ found in plants, fungi,
and many protists
‒ comprised of different
components than
prokaryotic cell walls
‒ function in providing
protection, maintaining
cell shape, and
preventing excessive
water loss/uptake
 Extracellular Matrix
• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by
an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
• ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in
the plasma membrane called integrins
‒ Keeps animal cells in position within the
organism
ECM
 Cell Junctions
• Neighboring cells in an animal or plant often
adhere, interact, and communicate through
direct physical contact
• There are several types of intercellular
junctions that facilitate this
‒ Plasmodesmata
‒ Tight junctions
‒ Desmosomes
‒ Gap junctions
 Plasmodesmata
• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate
plant cell walls
• Through plasmodesmata, water and small
solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA)
can pass from cell to cell
 Tight Junctions
• Formed by linking of membrane proteins of
adjacent cells
• Prevent materials from passing in between
cells
 Desmosomes
• Formed by membrane proteins of adjacent
cells linking to each other and intermediate
filaments within each cell
• Prevent cells from pulling apart when a
tissue is bent or stretched
 Gap Junctions
• Proteins in adjacent cells line up to create a
channel or pore
‒ Allows ions to pass rapidly between cells
• Which of the cell junctions discussed are
used for communication between cells?