Flow Visualization Techniques

7/8 B.E (Aero), MIT

 Introduction
 The general principle for flow visualization is to render
the “fluid elements” visible either by observing the
motion of suitable selected foreign materials added to
the flowing fluid
 By using an optical pattern resulting from the variation of
the optical properties of the fluid, such as the refractive
index, due to the variation of the properties of the flowing
fluid itself.
 A third class of visualization technique is based on a
combination of the above two principles.
 Each of these groups of techniques is generally used for
incompressible, compressible, and low-density gas flow,
respectively
Techniques adopted for low speed flow fields
 Smoke flow visualization is one of the popular techniques used in
low-speed flow fields with velocities up to about 30 m/s. Smoke
visualization is used to study problems such as boundary layers,
air pollution problems, design of exhaust systems of locomotives,
cars and ships, topographical influence of disposal of stack gases;
and so on.

 Tufts are used to visualize flow fields in the speed range from 40
to 150 m/s. This technique is usually employed to study boundary
layer flow, wake flow, flow separation, stall spread and so on.

 Chemical coating is used to visualize flow with speeds in the range

from 40 to 150 m/s. Boundary layer flow, transition of the flow from
laminar to turbulent nature, and so on are usually described by this
visualization technique.
Techniques adopted for high speed flow
fields
 The interferometer is an optical technique to visualize
high-speed flows in the ranges of transonic and
supersonic Mach numbers. This gives a qualitative
estimate of flow density in the field.
 The Schlieren technique is used to study high-speed
flows in the transonic and supersonic Mach number
ranges. This again gives only a qualitative estimate of
the density gradient of the field. This is used to visualize
faint shock waves, expansion waves, and so on.
 The shadowgraph method is yet another flow
visualization technique meant for high-speed flows with
transonic and supersonic Mach numbers. This is
employed for fields with strong shock waves
Smoke Tunnel
• Flow visualization with smoke is generally done in a smoke
tunnel. It is a low speed wind tunnel carefully designed to
produce a uniform steady flow in the test-section with
negligible turbulence.
• Smoke streaks are injected along the free stream or on the
surface of the model for visualizing flow patterns.
• White dense smoke is used for this purpose. When a beam of
light is properly focused on the smoke filaments, the light is
scattered and reflected by the smoke particles making them
distinguishably visible from the surroundings.
• The smoke tunnel is generally used for demonstrating flow
patterns such as flow around bodies of various shapes, flow
separation, and the like.
The quality of the flow pattern depends on the quality of the smoke used. For good results, properties of the smoke
chosen should have the following qualities.

 The smoke should be white, dense, nonpoisonous, and

noncorrosive.
 Smoke should have nearly the same density as that of
the surrounding air, hence the smoke filaments are not
appreciably influenced by gravity.
 Smoke particles should not disturb the flow in the wind
tunnel by formation of deposits on the surface of the
models or block the tubes used for smoke injection.
 Production of smoke should be easily and readily
controllable.
Smoke Production Methods
 Titanium Tetrachloride

• This is a liquid which when exposed to moist air produces copious

fumes of titanium dioxide along with hydrochloric acid.
• This smoke although very dense is somewhat toxic and forms
deposits and hence, it is not recommended for flow visualization,
except for very short periods of use.
• Stannic chloride also has the same property as titanium tetrachloride.

 Ammonia and Hydrochloric Acid

• When ammonia vapor is passed over hydrochloric acid, a white fume

of ammonium chloride is formed.
• The corrosive nature of the fume and the tendency to form white
deposits make this method of smoke production undesirable, except
on rare occasions.
Wood Smoke generator
Kerosene smoke generator
Operation of the kerosene smoke generator
• Fill the reservoir with pure kerosene.
• Adjust the reservoir height until the kerosene level in the boiler glass
tube reaches 8 to 10 cm below the nozzle.
• Switch on the heater. If the rheostat is adjusted properly the kerosene
should boil within five minutes.
• Open the valve admitting air into the mixing chamber.
• Adjust the valve until dense white smoke appears. If the airflow is
too much, kerosene vapor will condense without forming smoke.
Any condensed kerosene formed inside the mixing chamber should
be removed through the drain provided by the side of the nozzle.
• After running the apparatus for some time, the reservoir can be
raised to a height that just prevents spurting of the hot oil through
the orifice. The interior of the mixing chamber should always appear
dry.
Points to be considered for kerosene
smoke generator
• Overheating and insufficient airflow can cause the formation of black
carbon deposit, especially at the nozzle, eventually blocking the
orifice. In that case, the current supply to the heater has to be
reduced.
• The blocked orifice can be opened by introducing a fine steel wire
through the smoke outlet tube.
• Addition of a small quantity of liquid paraffin with kerosene will
enhance the density of the smoke.
• The rubber tubes connecting the reservoir and the boiler glass tube
should be thick and of high quality. This tube should be checked
periodically for deterioration and replaced whenever necessary.
• Constant attention is required while operating the apparatus.
• A large volume (approximately four liters) reservoir is provided
between the smoke generator and the tunnel smoke rake to
suppress fluctuations formed during the smoke generation process
Points to be considered for kerosene
smoke generator
• This reservoir also acts as a condenser for the smoke.
Some air pressure is always needed for the formation of
the smoke and if the smoke formed is in excess of that
required, it should be let out. With proper maintenance
and careful handling, a smoke generator of this type can
serve for many years without breakdown.
• The production of steady thin smoke filaments in the
test-section is possible only when the flow velocity is
small, say 2 to 5 m/s. At high velocities, the wake lines
formed at the smoke rakes become turbulent.
• It is also essential that the tunnel is kept away from
natural air drafts.
Points to be considered for kerosene
smoke generator
• Proper lighting arrangement is necessary to observe the smoke
patterns especially while taking photographs of the smoke
pattern.
• Lighting from above and below the tunnel is found to be the
best arrangement.
• Deep shadows should be avoided if photographs of the flow
patterns are to be taken and the lighting has to be adjusted
carefully for this purpose.
• The smoke filament lines coming out should be made to flow
through a properly designed tunnel section in order to make
flow visualizations over models of interest.
• This kind of tunnel is called a smoke tunnel.
Application of Smoke Visualization

Flow Over an Airfoil Smoke pattern over a blunt

body.
Compressible Flows
• Interferometer makes visible the optical
phase changes resulting from the relative
retardation of the disturbed rays;
• Schlieren system gives the deflection
angles of the incident rays;
• Shadowgraph visualizes the displacement
experienced by an incident ray that has
crossed the high-speed flowing gas.
Interferometer
Fundamental principle of the interferometer is from the wave theory
of light

(1)

where C is the velocity of propagation of light, f is its frequency,

and λ is its wavelength.
The velocity of light in a given medium is related to the velocity of
light in vacuum through the index of refraction n, defined as

(2)

The Gladstone–Dale empirical equation relates the refractive index n to the

density of the medium as
(3)

where K is the Gladstone–Dale constant, and is constant for a given gas and
ρ is the gas density.
 Mach–Zhender interferometer

where ρ1 and ρ2 are the density at the initial reference condition and density in the
test-section, respectively, d is the distance between the dark fringes in the
reference condition, and l is the distance shifted by a dark fringe in passing from
condition 1 to condition 2.
Formation of Interference Patterns
• Light from the source is made to pass through lens L which renders the light
1
parallel. The parallel beam of light leaving the lens passes through a
monochromatic filter.
• The light wave passes through two paths, 1–2–4 and 1–3–4, before falling on the
screen, as shown in the figure.
• The light rays from the source are divided into two beams by the half-silvered
mirror M1. The two beams, after passing through two different paths (the
lengths of paths being the same) recombine at lens L2 and get projected on the
screen.
• The difference between the two rays is that one (1–3–4) has traveled through
room air whereas the other (1–2–4) has traveled through the test-section. When
there is no flow through the test-section, the two rays having passed through
identical paths are in phase with each other and recombine into a single ray. Thus,
a uniform patch of light will be seen on the screen.
• Now, if the density of the medium of one of the paths is changed (say increased)
then the light beam passing through will be retarded and there will be a phase
difference between the two beams.
• When the magnitude of the phase difference is equal to λ/2, the two rays interfere
with each other giving rise to a dark spot on the screen. Hence, if there is
appreciable difference in the density the picture on the screen will consist of dark
and white bands, the phase difference between the consecutive dark bands being
Quantitative Evaluation
• We know that on the dark bands of
Figure, the light waves passing through
the test-section are out of phase with
those that pass through
• the room air in the compensating
chamber by 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, . . . of the
wavelength λroom of light in the room
atmosphere.
• Therefore, the light beams passing
through the adjacent dark bands of the
test-section are out of phase by 1 λroom.
• Hence, if a represents the fluid lying in
one dark band, and b the fluid in an
adjacent dark band, the difference in
Interferogram of a two-dimensional supersonic time for a light beam to pass through a as
jet at M = 1.62 (source: H. Shames, Mechanics compared to that passing through b is
of Fluids, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962). given by
(4)
where ta is the time for the light to pass through a region of density a and tb is the time
required for the light to pass through a region of density b. Let Ca and Cb be the velocities of
propagation of light through regions a and b, and L be the length of the test-section along
the light direction.
We know that the frequency f of a given monochromatic light is constant.
Therefore,

(5)

The difference in travel time given by Eq (4) may also be expressed in terms
of difference in speed of light in the test-section, using Eq. (5), as

(6)

where L is the test-section width.

 The velocity of light in a given medium is related to the velocity of light
in vacuum through the index of refraction n, defined as

(7)

(8)

Now, the index of refraction may be connected to the gas density through the empirical
Gladstone–Dale equation (Eqn [3]) to result in

(9)
Fringe-Displacement Method
• Let us consider the interferometer arrangement shown in Figure. Let the mirror
M3 be rotated through a small angle with respect to mirror M 1.The two rays of
light that were in phase at M1 will now be out of phase at the screen. Thus, the
image on the screen (with no flow in the test-section) will consist of alternate
white and dark bands, uniformly spaced, with each fringe lying parallel to the
axis of rotation. The spacing of successive dark fringes may be shown to be
equal to λ/2δ, where δ is the difference in the angles of rotation between the two
splitters (i.e., mirrors M1 and M3).

• Now, assume that the air density in the test-section is increased uniformly. This
will result in a uniform displacement of all the wave fronts passing through the
test-section. This displacement in turn will cause the interference bands on the
screen to shift in a direction normal to the bands, even though the bands will
remain parallel and uniformly spaced.
The fringe shift is a measure of density change in the test-section. It can be shown that

(10)

 where ρ1 and ρ2 are the density at the initial reference condition and density
in the test-section, respectively, d is the distance between the dark fringes in
the reference condition, and l is the distance shifted by a dark fringe in
passing from condition 1 to condition 2.

 When there is flow in the test-section, a non uniform fringe shift will occur
corresponding to the density field and the resultant fringes will be curved.
Equation (10) may then be applied at each point in the flow.

 If both flow and no-flow photographs are taken, Eq. (10) may be used to
determine the density change at each point, with respect to the no-flow
density.
Schlieren System

Picture of Bunsen flame with knife- edge

Picture of a supersonic free jet vertical (left) and knife-edge horizontal (right).
• Let us assume that the flow through the test-section is parallel and in the xy-
plane. Let the light pass through the test-section in the z-direction. From the
theory of light it is known that the speed of a wavefront of light varies
inversely with the index of refraction of the medium through which the light
travels.

• Therefore, a given wavefront will rotate as it passes through a gradient in the

refractive index n. Hence, the normal to the wave front will follow a curved
path.

• This effect is stated earlier in other words as “the ray will follow a curved path
bending towards the region of higher density and away from the region of
lower density.” In such a case, the radius of curvature R of the light ray is
proportional to 1/n. It can be shown that
The total angular deflection ε of the ray in passing through the test-section
of width L is therefore given by

Resolving this into Cartesian components, we have

Using Eq. (3), these equations can be expressed as

(11)

(12)
 Twin-mirror Schlieren system

• The mirrors C and E are a carefully matched pair.

• Usually they are made of glass and their front surfaces are parabolized to
better than one-tenth of a wavelength of light.
• The excellence of their optical quality bears a direct relation to the image quality
produced. Also, due to their size (often more than 300 mm in diameter) and weight
they must be carefully mounted to avoid distortions.
• In the Schlieren setup arrangement, it is essential that the angle θ 1 must be
approximately equal to angle θ2 and their values should be as small as
possible although angles up to about 7◦ are used successfully to obtain flow
visualization of acceptable quality.

• The distance between the mirrors is not critical but it is good practice to
make it greater than twice the focal length of the mirrors. Also, the optical
system beyond S2 is simplified if the distance from the disturbance to be
observed at test-section D to the mirror E is greater than the focal length of
E.

• The parallel rays entering the region D are bent by the refractive index
gradient and are no longer parallel to the beam from C and hence, cannot be
focused by the second mirror unless the distance from D to the second
mirror E is greater than the focal length of E.
• The image of the test-section flow field (with the model) focused at the focal
point at S2 will diverge and proceed further. This image can be made to fall
on a flat screen. The clarity of the image can be modified by adjusting the
knife-edge.

• Proper adjustment of the knife-edge can result in sharp images of the shock
(or compression) and expansion waves prevailing in the flow to fall on the
screen.

• A still or video camera can record the image on the screen. When a video
camera is used, the image can be made to fall on the camera lens. This will
avoid the parallax error associated with capturing the image from the screen
with a still camera kept at an angle from the screen, without cutting the light
rays from S2.
Range and Sensitivity of the Schlieren System

• Let us assume that the contrast on the screen is increased by reducing the
size of the image. That is, the knife-edge is made to cut off most of the
light, any ray deflecting beyond a certain limit will be completely cut off
by the knife-edge, and further deflection will have no effect on the
contrast.

• This means that the range is limited. Increase in sensitivity affects the
range of density gradient for which the system could be used. The contrast
or sensitivity requirement depends on the problem to be studied.

• Hence, to adjust the contrast the knife edge is generally mounted on a

vertical movement so that its position can be altered with respect to the
image.
Schlieren Mirrors
• Two parabolic mirrors of 200 mm diameter
• Focal length of the mirrors about 1.75 m
• Thickness of the mirror glass about 25 mm
• The reflecting surface of the mirrors is ground to an accuracy of 1/4
wavelength of sodium light and aluminized. Parabolic mirrors are the most
suitable even though they are more expensive than spherical mirrors which
also will serve the purpose.
• It is important to note here that, although an optical finish of λ/4 is good
enough for visualization of shock waves, if the aim is to study the structure
of the flow field (e.g., shear layers in a free jet, etc.) with ultra-short
Schlieren photography, a mirror surface finish of the order of λ/20 is
essential.
Light Source
• Small intense halogen lamp of 30 watts is commonly used.
• Mercury vapor lamp of suitable intensity (say 200 watts) may also be
employed.
• Provision to vary the intensity of light will prove to be useful.
Condenser Lens
• Any condenser lens pair generally used for projection systems will be
sufficient. This need not be of very high quality

Focusing Lens
• This lens is positioned in the Schlieren system in such a way that a flow
field is focused on the screen. An ordinary double convex lens can be used.
Knife-Edge
Any straight, sharp-edged opaque object mounted on an adjustable stand will be
sufficient to serve as a knife-edge. The Schlieren technique is generally
used only for qualitative work, even though in principle it can be used for
quantitative work.
If quantitative measurements are to be done the density of the image has to be
measured and this can be done with a photo densitometer. This instrument
contains a photo cell and it is scanned over the photographic film of the
Schlieren image.
By properly adjusting the exposure time the brightness of the pattern on the
photographic print can be made proportional to the brightness of the Schlieren
system. The effect of the knife-edge on the image obtained with Schlieren is
evident from Figure.

Color Schlieren

If the knife-edge which is kept at the focal point of the second mirror is
replaced by a colored filter containing different colors, the image formed on the
screen will have different colors depending on which way the beam bends. The
contrast in the ordinary black and white Schlieren will now be represented by
colors.
Usually the colors red, yellow, and green are used. These filters are of 1 or 2 mm in
width and placed side by side. When there is no flow the image of the source is
allowed to fall on the yellow portion of the filter. Now the image on the viewing
screen will be completely yellow.

When the density gradient is introduced the image is displaced and falls partly on
the neighboring filter thus altering the color on the screen. In the three-filter color
Schlieren screen the color also indicates the size of the density gradient. The color
effect described can also be achieved with a dispersion prism placed at the knife-edge
location.
Short Duration Light Source
To study unsteady phenomena such as flow over a moving object or turbulent
fluctuations in the wake of body or the mixing shear layer in a jet flow field, it is often
necessary to take short duration exposures of the Schlieren image to arrest (record)
the unsteadiness in the photograph.
For this the duration of exposure required is of the order of one or two microseconds
or even less. An ordinary shutter in conjunction with a continuous light source is
limited to an exposure time of not more than 1000 seconds. Therefore, to obtain
shorter exposures the light sources capable of emitting light of very short duration
should be employed.
A condenser discharge-type electric spark unit is commonly used for this purpose.
Sparks of durations of the order of microseconds could be obtained by condenser
discharge.
Shadowgraph
For a two-dimensional
flow the increase of
light intensity can be
expressed as

where k is a constant
The shadow effect and x and y are the
coordinates in a
plane normal to the
light path.
Shadowgraph of an under expanded sonic jet operating at nozzle pressure ratio 6
 Comparison of Schlieren and
Shadowgraph Methods
 The theory shows that the Schlieren technique depends upon the first
derivative of the refractive index (flow density) and the shadowgraph method
depends upon its second derivative.
 Consequently, in phenomena where the refractive index varies relatively
slowly, the Schlieren method is to be preferred to the shadowgraph method,
other things being equal. On the other hand, the shadow method beautifully
brings out the rapid changes in the index of refraction. The shadow method
also has the advantage of greater simplicity and somewhat wider possible
application.
• The two methods therefore supplement each other and both should be
used wherever possible. Fortunately, in many cases the same apparatus or
optical parts can be used for both methods by simple rearrangement and
without too much effort on the part of the experimenter.
Comparison of Schlieren and
Shadowgraph Methods…
 In addition to the first and second derivatives,
the refractive index can also be obtained by
integration.
 However, whenever possible, it is preferable to
measure the density directly rather than
obtaining it from its derivative.
 For this reason it is clear that the Schlieren and
shadowgraph methods should be
supplemented by the interference method,
which gives the refractive index directly.