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 WELCOME
TO THE VIRTUAL WORLD
TO EXPLORE
THE PHYSICS WORLD
MR. DOMINIC CUDJOE
[PHYSICS FACILITATOR]
0244 162 526
ELECTROSTATICS
 INTRODUCTION
• A nylon garment often crackles when it is taken off.
• We say it has become charged with static electricity.
• The crackles are caused by tiny electric sparks.
• If a hard-plastic comb is rubbed through a dry hair on a dry day, little sparks may occur.
• The comb which has been used to rub the hair can pick up small bits of paper or hair
particles.
• In the same way, when a plastic pen or comb is rubbed vigorously on a dry hair or a fur
material, the pen can attract other pieces of paper.
• What is revealed in this way is an electrical phenomenon.
• During the rubbing, the plastic comb or the pen becomes charged with static electricity.
Electrostatics (or static electricity) is the study involving interactions of electric charges
at rest. Static electricity has a number of uses.
• A flash of lightning is nature’s most spectacular static electric effect.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Classify materials as conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.
2. Outline methods of charging materials.
3. Describe the distribution of charges on pear-shaped and spherical
conductors.
4. Explain the action of charges at sharp points.
5. Explain Coulomb’s law for point charges.
6. Explain the concepts of an electric field and electric field intensity.
7. Explain electric potential and potential difference.
8. Deduce the relationship between potential gradient and electric field
intensity.
 LESSON 1

THE CONCEPT OF ELECTRIC

CHARGE
What is electric charge?
• A charge is an intrinsic property of an object that
determines its electrical behaviour. Certain subatomic
particles are responsible for this property.
• Two types of charges are the positive and negative
charges.
• Electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively
charged.
• The unit of charge is the coulomb (C).
• Particles either have charge or they don’t. When we say that we are
charging an object, what we really mean to say is that we are transferring
particles that have charge from one macroscopic object to another
macroscopic object.
• A negatively charged body is a body with excess negative charges (or
excess electrons).
• A positively charged body is one with excess positive charges (or
deficiency of electrons).
• A neutral body is one with equal number of positive and negative charges
(or equal number of protons and electrons).
• The transfer of even one electron from body 1 to body 2, both of them
initially neutral bodies, results in body 2 becoming negatively charged and
body 1 becoming positively charged.
 LESSON 2

CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, AND

SEMICONDUCTORS
Solid state materials can be classified according to their electrical properties as conductors,
insulators, and semiconductors.
1. CONDUCTORS
• Conductors are substances that allow electric charges to flow through them easily.
• A conductor conducts electricity well due to a large concentration of free electrons.
• Examples of conductors are metals.
• Metals are the only solid conductors at room temperature.
• In a metal, each atom gives up one or more electrons and these are the electrons that can move
relatively freely inside the metal.
• The conduction of electricity through gases and liquids – in a neon sign, for instance, or in the
acid of a storage battery – involves the movement of charged atoms and molecules called ions.
• An atom or molecule gains a positive charge (becomes a positive ion) when it loses one or
more electrons, and it gains a negative charge (becomes a negative ion) when electrons in
excess of its normal number become attached to it.
2. INSULATORS
• Insulators are substances that do not allow electric charges
to flow through them.
• An insulator does not conduct electricity due to lack of free
electrons.
• Non-metallic solids are insulators because all their
electrons are tightly bound to particular atoms or groups of
atoms.
• Examples of insulators are wood, glass, plastic, and paper.
3. SEMICONDUCTORS
• Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivity
lies between that of conductors and insulators.
• A semiconductor conducts electricity to a limited extent
due to the presence of a small concentration of free
electrons which can be increased by heating.
• Examples of semiconductors are germanium and silicon.
 LESSON 3

METHODS OF CHARGING
MATERIALS
There are four ways of producing static electricity or
charging materials. These are by
1. Friction (or rubbing).
2. Induction.
3. Contact.
4. Electrical Conduction.
 CHARGING BY FRICTION
Traditional experiments show that:
1. If an ebonite rod is rubbed with a fur or woollen
material, the ebonite rod becomes negatively charged.
(In modern times, polythene or plastic material is used to
rub with wool and the polythene becomes negatively
charged).
During rubbing, electrons are transferred from the ebonite
rod unto the fur material and the ebonite rod becomes
negatively charged, and the fur material positively charged
(fig. 1).
 Fig. 1 - Rubbing ebonite rod with a fur material

Similarly, if a polythene (a grey plastic) rod is rubbed with a dry

woollen material, the polythene rod becomes negatively charged.
2. If a glass rod is rubbed with a silk material, the glass rod becomes
positively charged. During rubbing, electrons are transferred from the
glass rod unto the silk material and the glass rod becomes positively
charged and the silk material negatively charged (fig. 2)
Similarly, if cellulose acetate strip or Perspex rod is rubbed with a
woollen material, it becomes positively charged).

Fig. 2- rubbing glass rod with silk material

 CHARGING BY INDUCTION
• Electrostatic induction is the process of charging a neutral
body without physical contact by bringing a charged body
near the neutral body.
• The neutral body must be an insulated conductor.
• If a positively charged body is used a negatively charged
body is produced by induction.
 CASE 1: CHARGING AN INSULATED
CONDUCTOR NEGATIVELY BY INDUCTION
Suppose an insulated spherical conductor is to be charged negatively by induction.
Three steps are involved in the process.

STEP 1:
• A positively charged rod is brought near the surface of the insulated spherical
conductor, C. (fig. 3).
• There is separation of charges in the spherical conductor.
• The positively charged rod attracts negative charges towards the surface of body C
near the
• charged rod and positive charges are repelled to the far side of body C.
Fig. 3- separation of charges
STEP 2:
• With the charged rod still present, the insulated conductor
is earthed at the far end and there is neutralization of
charges at the far end (fig. 4).
• Negative charges (electrons) flow from the Earth to
neutralize the positive charges there.
• (If the charges at the far end are electrons they will rather
flow into the Earth).
Fig. 4- Neutralization of charges
STEP 3:
• The charged rod is then removed (fig. 5).
• The negative charges are redistributed over the entire
surface of the insulated spherical conductor.
• The insulated conductor becomes negatively charged.
• Thus, with a positively charged rod, we obtain a negatively
charged conductor.
Fig. 5- Redistribution of charges
 CASE 2: CHARGING AN INSULATED
CONDUCTOR POSITIVELY BY INDUCTION
Suppose an insulated spherical conductor D is to be
charged positively by induction.
Three steps are involved in the process.

STEP 1
• A negatively charged rod is brought near the surface of the
insulated spherical conductor (fig. 6).
• There is separation of charges.
Fig. 6- separation of charges
STEP 2
• With the charged rod still present, the conductor D is
earthed (fig. 7).
• The charges at the far end of D are neutralized.
• The electrons flow into the Earth.

Fig. 7- neutralization of charges

STEP 3
• The charged rod is then removed (fig. 8).
• There is redistribution of charges.
• The conductor D becomes positively charged.
• Thus, with a negatively charged rod, we obtain a positively
charged conductor.

Fig. 8- Redistribution of charges

Two insulated spherical conductors initially in contact can
be charged by induction so that:
Either, (1) they acquire opposite charges, or
(2) they all acquire the same charge.
 CASE 3: CHARGING TWO INSULATED
CONDUCTORS TOGETHER SO THAT THEY
ACQUIRE OPPOSITE CHARGES
Three steps are involved:
STEP 1
The insulated conductors are placed in contact and a charged
rod is brought near the surface of one of the conductors.
There is separation of charges in the two conductors (fig. 9).
Fig. 9- separation of charges
STEP 2
• With the charged rod still present, conductor B is separated
from A (fig. 10).
• Positive charges are redistributed over the surface of B.

Fig. 10 – Body B separated from A

STEP 3
• The charged rod is then removed from body A (fig. 11).
• Negative charges are redistributed over the surface of body A.
• Thus, body A becomes negatively charged and body B
becomes positively charged.

Fig. 11 – Bodies A and B acquire opposite charges

CASE 4: CHARGING TWO INSULATED SPHERICAL
TOGETHER SO THAT THEY ACQUIRE SAME
CHARGE
Four steps are involved in this process:
STEP 1
• The insulated conductors are placed in contact and a
charged rod is brought near the surface of one of the
insulated conductors (fig. 12).
• There is separation of charges.
Fig. 12 – separation of charges
STEP 2
• With the charged rod still present, conductor B at the far
end is earthed (fig. 13).
• There is neutralization of charges in conductor B.

Fig. 13- Neutralization of charges in B

STEP 3
• The charged rod is then removed.
• There is transfer of charges from body A to body B in
contact (fig. 14).

Fig. 14 – Distribution of charges

STEP 4
• The two insulated conductors are then separated.
• There is redistribution of charges over the surfaces (fig. 15).
• Thus both conductors acquire the same charge.

Fig. 15 - separation of charged conductors

 CHARGING BY CONTACT
• A body gets charged if it is brought into contact with a
charged body.
• Charges are transferred from the charged body to the
uncharged body and they possess the same charge.

Step 1:
Suppose a charged insulated conductor A is initially away
from an uncharged insulated conductor B (fig. 16).
Fig. 16 – conductors initially separated.
STEP 2:
• If conductor A is brought into contact with B, charges are
transferred from A to B (fig. 17).
• The conductors in contact behave like a single conductor.

Fig. 17 – Two bodies in contact

STEP 3:
• The two insulated conductors are then separated (as in fig.18).
• There is redistribution of charges.
• If A and B are identical in size (have the same surface area), they
will share the initial charge carried by A equally.
• They will hence have the same charge.

Fig. 18- Body B charged by contact

 CHARGING BY ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTION
An insulated conductor can be charged by conduction if one terminal of
a battery is connected to the conductor and the other terminal to the
Earth.

CASE 1:
• To charge the insulated conductor positively, the positive terminal of
the battery is connected to the conductor and the positive terminal of
the battery to the Earth (fig. 19).
• Electrons will flow from the conductor to the battery, and the
conductor becomes positively charged.
Fig. 19 – charging a conductor positively by conduction
CASE 2:
• To charge the insulated conductor negatively, the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the conductor and
the positive terminal of the battery to the Earth (fig. 20).
• With this arrangement, electrons flow from the battery to
the conductor.
• The conductor becomes negatively charged.
Fig. 20 – charging a conductor negatively by induction
 LESSON 4

THE GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

The gold-leaf electroscope (fig. 21) is an instrument used:
1. To test whether a body is charged.
2. To test for the sign of the charge.

Fig. 21- Gold-leaf electroscope

• A gold-leaf electroscope consists of a brass cap joined to a
brass rod and having a gold-leaf at the far end of the brass
rod.

• The brass rod and the gold-leaf are enclosed in a glass

casing which is earthed so that the gold-leaf is not
influenced by charges not close to the brass cap.
 TO TEST WHETHER A BODY IS CHARGED
• The body is brought near the cap of the gold-leaf
electroscope (fig. 22).
• If the body is charged it will induce a charge of opposite
kind on the brass cap and repel charges of like kind to the
gold-leaf and the brass plate down the brass rod.
• Since like charges repel, divergence would be observed in
the gold leaf.
• If the body is not charged (neutral) no induction of charges
will occur and the gold leaf [will not diverge].
Fig. 22 – use of gold-leaf electroscope to test whether a body is charged
 USE OF GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
TO TEST FOR THE SIGN OF A CHARGE
• A gold-leaf electroscope is first charged either positively or
negatively using a known charged body.
• With a negatively charged rod we obtain a positively charged
electroscope.
• The three-stage process is as illustrated in Stage 1, Stage 2
and Stage 3 in fig. 23.
Fig. 23 - charging the gold-leaf electroscope positively by induction
• If a charged body is brought near the charged gold-leaf
electroscope as obtained in fig. 23 (iii), and further
divergence is observed, then it means the charged body has
the same charge as the charged electroscope.
• A decrease in divergence would either mean that the body
carries opposite charge or it is neutral. Hence, further
divergence is the surest test that the body is charged.
The above activity is summarized in the table below.
Charge on Charge brought Effect on gold-leaf
electroscope near brass cap divergence

+ + Increase
− − Increase
+ − Decrease
− + Decrease
+ or − Uncharged body Decrease
 LESSON 5

DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ON
SURFACES OF INSULATED
CONDUCTORS
• When a conductor is charged, the charges spread over the
entire surface of the conductor.
• The charge distribution depends on the nature of the
surface.
• The surface charge density at a place is given by the
expression;
=
• Where Q = Quantity of charge, and A = surface area
• Surface charge density is the quantity of charge per unit
area of surface.
• Experiments show that there is a very high accumulation of charges
or a very high charge density at sharp points or highly curved
surfaces.
• This is illustrated in a pear–shaped conductor (fig. 24).
• Point A of the conductor has the smallest radius of curvature and it
has the highest charge density. This is followed by surface B and
least at C.

Fig. 24- distribution of charges over pear–shaped conductor

 For a spherical conductor the charges are equally and evenly
distributed over the entire surface (fig. 25)

Fig. 25 – charge distribution over a spherical surface

ACTION OF CHARGES AT SHARP POINTS
• Consider a conductor having a sharp point as in fig. 26
which is charged positively.
• The positive charges will be concentrated mostly at the
sharp point.
• If the charge density at the sharp point is very high a strong
electric field will be set up around the sharp point.
Fig. 26 – Action of charges at sharp points
• The air molecules around the sharp point are ionized into
positive charges and negative charges .
• The positive charges are repelled from the positively charged
sharp point and the negative charges are attracted to the
sharp point, neutralized, and then repelled from the sharp
point.
• The repelled positive charges cause further ionization of air
molecules due to friction.
• An avalanche of positive charges, called corona discharge,
therefore continues to flow from the sharp point.
 LIGHTNING FORMATION AND LIGHTNING
CONDUCTORS
1. Lightning Formation
• One of the best examples of observing effects of static electricity is lightning.
• A lightning is the occurrence of a natural electric discharge of very short duration and high
voltage between a cloud and the ground, or between a cloud and a cloud, accompanied by
the loud sound of thunder.
• Moisture bearing clouds are initially electrically neutral.
• But as the mass of clouds increase in size, they start rubbing against each other.
• Within a thundercloud, positive and negative charges build up in different parts of the
cloud due to friction between the clouds.
• Most of the bottom of the cloud becomes negatively charged and the top part
positively charged.
• The negative charges on the bottom of the clouds repel electrons onto the
surface of the Earth, leaving the ground positively charged just below the
cloud.
• The strong attraction between the negative cloud and the positive ground pulls
electrons off atoms and molecules in the air, causing the atoms or molecules to
be ionized.
• This process is most likely to occur over the highest point on the ground. Once
a chain of ions forms, a gigantic discharge occurs between the cloud and
ground.
• So many electrons clash through the air so fast, colliding with other molecules,
and creating lightning bolt (fig. 27) which is a flash of electrical energy that
makes the air not only light up; it heats up too.
Fig. 27 – Lightning bolt
• The temperature of air near a lightning bolt can reach as
high as 33,000°C.
• The heat causes the air to expand rapidly.
• Air molecules colliding with more molecules as they move
around produce a shock wave or a loud sound that we hear
as thunder.
• The heat can trigger forest fires and building fires.
• If a lightning strikes, 10 to 30 million volts of electricity
flow.
• If the lightning hits a person, the electric activity can stop
the heart or respiration, and can kill the person.
2. Lightning Conductors
• The lightning striking tall structures as buildings can be
arrested using lightning conductors.
• A lightning conductor consists of a long vertical rod
(normally made of copper) which is pointed at the upper
end and the other end is attached to a plate buried in the
Earth (fig. 28).
Fig. 28 – Action of lightning conductor
• If a negatively charged cloud passes over a lightning
conductor at the top of a building, the lightning conductor
becomes charged by induction.
• It attracts the negative ions that have formed in the air and
repels positive ions to the cloud to neutralize it, so that it is
less likely to produce a lightning flash.
• The electrons that are attracted to the lightning conductor
travel down as electric current through the conductor.
• The building is therefore protected from any damage
which otherwise would have been caused by the lightning
strike.
 LESSON 6

COULOMB’S LAW OF
ELECTROSTATICS
• Electrostatic force represents an interaction across the space
between two charged bodies.
• A force exists between two point charges at rest.
• Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract.
• The magnitude of the force between point charges was first
investigated by Charles Coulomb.
• He came up with the basic law of force on charges at rest.
• Coulomb’s law states that the force of attraction or repulsion
between two point charges is directly proportional to the product
of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centres.
It must be noted that:
1. This force acts in the direction of the line joining the
centres of the two point charges.
2. This force is a function of the medium in which the point
charges are situated.
For two point charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a distance r
from their centres (fig. 29), the following observations
were made:

Fig. 29 - Two point charges at rest

Mathematically,
1.The force F is proportional to the product of the charges, that is, F
Q1Q2, and
2.The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between their centres, that is,

Equation (1) is the mathematical expression of Coulomb’s law. It is

the basic law of force on charges at rest.
• From (1), the constant k =
is pronounced “epsilon” and is called the permittivity of the medium.
• If the charges are situated in vacuum, the constant k =
where pronounced epsilon zero, is called the permittivity of free space,
(and has a value )
• k = is called the Coulomb constant, such that,
• = 9.0
• Hence, for charges situated in vacuum,
• F = (2), or
 RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY
Relative permittivity,, is the ratio of the permittivity of a
medium, , to the permittivity of free space or vacuum, . That
is
=
Hence,
 EXAMPLE 1
Two point charges, +2C and –3C are placed 50 cm apart.
Calculate the force between the charges when:
i. They are placed in vacuum.
ii. They are placed in a medium of relative permittivity of
10.
[Coulomb’s constant, 9.0]
 SOLUTION
Q1 = +2C = +2 ×10−6 C; Q2 = 3C = 3 × 10−6 C;
r = 50 cm = 0.5 m.
i. For the charges in vacuum, the force
F=
=

= 0.216 N
ii. F = where,
F=
=
=
=
=
Alternatively, 0.0216 N
Thus the force on the two point charges situated in a medium of relative
permittivity of 10 is ten times less than that in vacuum.
 EXAMPLE 2
Two equal point charges are placed 40 cm apart in vacuum. If
the two charges attract each other with a force of 5 N,
calculate the magnitude of each charge.
 SOLUTION
Q1 = Q2 = Q; r = 40 cm = 0.4 m; F = 5 N.
F=
F=
5=
= =
∴Q= = 9.43 10−6 C
 LESSON 7

ELECTRIC FIELD, ELECTRIC

FIELD INTENSITY AND ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL
 ELECTRIC FIELD
• An electric field is the region around a charged body where electric force is
experienced. An electric field is a condition in space by the presence of charges.
The electric field is represented by electric field lines or lines of force, also
called electric flux lines.
•The lines of force have the following characteristics:

1. They begin from a positive charge and converge on a negative charge.

2. They are in a state of tension which causes them to tend to shorten.
3. They never cross one another.
4. They crowd together in regions of strong field.
5. They attract one another for opposite charges and repel one another for like
charges.
Fig. 30 - Electric field lines of charges
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY, E
The electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is
defined as the force per unit positive charge at that point,
the direction of which a unit positive charge would move if
it is free to do so.

Fig. 31 - electric field intensity E, at that location

• Consider a point charge Q in a fixed position and assume that it is
positive.
• Now imagine moving a tiny positive test charge Qo around to
various locations near Q (fig. 31). The force that the point charge
experiences at any point is
• Hence by definition of electric field intensity, divide this force on
the test charge by. The resulting quantity is a vector quantity called
the electric field intensity, E, at that location.
• Thus: E .........................(1)
• From (1) above, the unit of electric field intensity is NC-1, or Vm-1.
• From Coulomb’s law, the force experienced by is:
,
• where r is the distance between the two charges.
• Hence: E
E.
E or ............................(2)
• Equation (2) is another expression for electric field
intensity
 EXAMPLE 3
A point charge of 4C is situated in vacuum. What is the
electric field intensity at a point B, 20 cm east from the point
charge?
 SOLUTION
E= , Q = 4C = 4 × 10−6 C, r = 0.2 m.
:. E =
= 9.0 × 105 NC−1 East
 EXAMPLE 4
A charge Q = +3 × 10−6 C is placed at a location at which the
electric field intensity is 40 NC−1. Find the force experienced
by the charge Q.
 SOLUTION
E=
40 =

= 40 × 3 × 10−6
RESULTANT ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT DUE TO
A CONFIGURATION OF POINT CHARGES
• The resultant electric field due to a configuration of point
charges is the vector sum of the electric field due to each
individual charge.
• This is the superposition principle.
 EXAMPLE 5
Two charges, +2C and –5C are placed 20 cm apart in
vacuum. Calculate the electric field intensity at a point P
midway between them.
 SOLUTION

Fig. 32- Example

As illustrated in fig. 32, the electric due to charge at point A is

directed from point A towards point P (electric field points away
from a positive charge), and the electric field due to charge at point
B is directed away from point P towards point B (electric field is
directed inwards towards a negative charge).
The fields due to the two charges therefore point in the same
direction.
Hence the resultant electric field intensity is simply the sum of the
magnitudes of the field intensity due to the individual charges.
The electric field intensity at P due to charge at A is: EAP
Q = +2C = 2 × 10−6 C; r = 0.1 m
EAP =
= 1.8 × 106 NC−1 East
(A unit positive charge at P will move east of charge at B).
The electric field intensity at P due to the charge at B is
EBP =
= 4.5 × 106 NC−1, East
(A unit Positive charge at P will move east towards Charge at
B)
Total electric field intensity at P due to charges at
A and B = EAP + EBP
= (1.8 × 106) + (4.5 × 106)
= 6.3 × 106 NC−1, East
 EXAMPLE 6
Two charges +2C and +5 are placed 20 cm apart in vacuum.
Calculate the electric field intensity at a point P mid-way
between them.
 SOLUTION

The positions of the charges are as shown in the figure above.

NOTE: If the fields point in opposite directions, then the resultant
field intensity is simply the difference in magnitude of the field
intensities [larger field intensity minus (smaller field intensity] in
the direction of the field with the larger magnitude.
The electric field intensity at P due to the charge at A is:
EAP , But Q = 2 × 10−6 C
EAP =
= 1.8 × 106 NC−1, East (a unit positive charge at P will move
east of charge at A).
The electric field intensity at P due to charge at B is:
, Q = 5 × 10−6 C

= 4.5 × 106 NC−1, West

(a unit positive charge at P will move west of charge at B).
The total electric field intensity at P due to the two charges is:
ETotal = (That is, the larger intensity minus the smaller intensity).
= (4.5 × 106) − (1.8 × 106), West
= 2.7 × NC−1, West
 THE ELECTRIC FIELD OF A CHARGED
THIN SPHERICAL SHELL
• A thin shell of radius R has a total charge Q distributed uniformly over its surface.
• The electric field inside a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero.
• The field outside is the same as that of a point charge having a total charge Q located
at the centre of the shell:
,
• The charge density is given by the expression:
• Where = total charge, and A = Surface area of the sphere of radius R, such that:
• , and r = distance of the point charge from the centre of sphere.
• Inside a spherical charge, the electric field is zero. It is maximum on the surface and
follows an inverse square law as you move away from the surface as shown in Fig. 33.
 Fig. 33: Electric field due to a spherical charge

Note: R = radius of sphere and r = distance from the centre of the sphere.
 ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM:
NEUTRAL POINT
• Electrostatic equilibrium exists at a point where the resultant electric field
due to other charges is zero.
• Such a point is usually referred to as a neutral point.
• At the neutral point the electric fields cancel out.
• If the fields are in one dimension then they have equal magnitude and
point in opposite directions. If the fields have components in two
perpendicular directions (i.e and ), then the components in each direction
cancel out.
• Thus the components in each direction have the same magnitude and point
in opposite directions.
A. Neutral point due to two like charges
Consider two like charges of magnitude q1 and q2
separated by a distance d as shown below (Fig. 34)

Fig. 34: neutral point due to two like charges

Let the neutral point be at P, a distance from q1. Then P will

be a distance from Q2.

At P, electric field due to q1 = electric field due to q2.

i.e
Hence

Knowing q1, q2 and d, can be calculated.

 EXAMPLE 7
Two positive charges and are separated by a distance of 3.0
cm.
Where will a third charge be placed so that it experiences
zero net force?
SOLUTION
Let the charges be arranged as shown above.

Since the charges are like, q3 must be placed between q1 and q2 along the same line joining
them.

At the location of q3,

Hence q3 must be placed 1.0 cm from q1.

 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (V)
• When a charge moves in an electric field it experiences a change in kinetic
energy and in electrical potential energy because of the work done on it by
the electric field.
• Electric Potential, V =
• The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done in
moving a unit charge from infinity to that point.
• Electric Potential, V, is a scalar quantity, and is given by the expression,
V = ............... (1)
• The unit of electric potential is volt (V).
• Because electric potential is a scalar quantity its value is negative, that is,
 EXAMPLE 8
A small positive charge of +4 is placed at a point A.
Calculate its electric potential at a point B a distance 20 cm
from A.
 SOLUTION

Electric potential, V = where Q = + 44 ×10 −6 ;

r = 20 cm = 0.2 m
V=
= 1.8 × 105 V
 RESULTANT ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT
DUE TO A CONFIGURATION OF CHARGES
• The resultant electric potential at a point due to a
configuration of charges is the sum of the potentials due to
the various charges.
• Simply calculate the potential due to each individual charge
using the equation: ,
• but attach the sign of the charge. Finally add up the
potentials. This gives the resultant potential.
 EXAMPLE 9
Two point charges + 4 and −2C are placed at points A and B and 20
cm apart. Calculate the electric potential at a point P midway
between the charges.
 SOLUTION

Electric potential at point P due charge at A is

=; Q = +4 ×10−6 C, r = 0.1 m
= 360,000 V
Electric potential at P due to charge at B is
VPB = , Q = −2 ×10−6 C, r = 0.1 m.
= = 180,000 V
Total electric potential at P due to the two charges = VPA + VPB

= 360,000 + (−180,000) = 180,000 V

 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
• All points in a field which have the same potential can be imagined as lying on
a surface called an equipotential surface.
• No work is done and there is no change in energy if a charge moves on such a
surface.
• For a point charge, the equipotential surfaces are concentric spheres (or in 2
dimensions, circles), as illustrated in fig. 35a.
• For a uniform electric field between two parallel plates, the equipotential
surfaces are a set of parallel planes which are equally spaced between the plates
(fig. 35b).
• The field lines bend slightly around the end of the plates due to repulsion from
inner field lines. For a spherical charge, all points on the surface are
equipotential.
Fig. 35 – Equipotential Surfaces
 VARIATION OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
WITH DISTANCE FROM A CHARGE BODY
The electric potential, V, is given by the expression,
=
Thus V varies inversely with distance r.
a) For a point charge with negligible diameter, V varies
with distance r as shown in Fig. 36

Fig. 36 - Variation of electric potential with distance for a point charge

b) For a charged body like a spherical conductor the
potential over the entire surface is the same (constant).
The variation of electric potential with distance is as
shown in Fig. 37.

Fig. 37 – variation of electric potential with distance for a charged spherical body
 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d)

Fig. 38 – Potential difference due to a point charge

• Consider a point charge Q having a uniform electric field

of intensity E (Fig. 38).
• At point A, a distance from Q, the potential at A is VA;
where .
• At point B, distant from Q, the potential at B is .
The potential difference, between A and B is defined as the work done in moving a unit
charge from A to B.
Thus potential difference, p.d. between A and B is

From the definition of potential difference (p.d),

If a positive charge q moves from point A to point B (fig. 38) the work done, (W.D), is
given by the expression:
 EXAMPLE 12
Two positive point charges, 12 µC and 8 µC are 10 cm apart in
vacuum. Find the work done in bringing the charges 4 cm closer.
 SOLUTION

Fig. 39 – example

Suppose charge +12 µC is initially at rest at O and charge

+8 µC moves from rest from B to A (fig. 39). Point B is a
distance rB = 10 cm = 0.1 m from O.
If charge +8 µC at B moves 4 cm closer to a new position A,
a distance rA = 6 cm = 0.06 m, then the potential difference between points A and
B is
= , where Q is the charge at point O.
=
= 7.2 × V
The work done = moving charge × p.d.
= 7.2
=
The same answer would be obtained if +8 µC is made to remain stationary whilst
+12 µC moves towards it 4 cm closer.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD
INTENSITY (E) AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (V)
• Consider a point charge +Q at a point A in a uniform electric field of intensity E
(fig. 40) due to a test charge at O.

Fig. 40– relation between E and V

• The force on Q is: F = EQ. -------------- (1)

• Suppose the charge Q moves through a small distancefrom point A to B.
• The work done = force × distance
• …………….. (2)
If the potential at A, VA = V and that at B, VB = V + V, then the potential

difference between A and B is VA – VB = V – (V +V) =

But potential difference = work done per unit charge
=.................. (3)
Substitute (2) in (3)
=

E=
In the limit as approches zero, (that as the Electric field intensity at
a point A becomes the calculus notation.
E ..................... (4) (is pronounced dee V dee).
is called the potential gradient in the x-direction.
The negative sign means the potential decreases with increasing
displacement in the direction of E.
• In a graph showing the variation of potential with distance, as
in Fig. 36, the slope (gradient) of the graph is the magnitude of
the field strength.
• This applies to both gravitational and electric fields.
• The graph is a curve, hence the field strength at any point is
the gradient or slope of the tangent drawn to the curve at that
point.
• Potential gradient is a vector quantity with unit Vm −1.
• Hence another unit for electric field intensity is Vm−1.
• In a uniform electric field, the potential gradient is a constant.
• If a p.d, V is applied between two parallel plates separated by distance d,
a uniform field is created (fig. 41).

Fig. 41 – uniform electric field

•The electric field intensity between the two plates is

• E=
• E=
 EXAMPLE 13
Calculate the electric field intensity between two parallel
plates separated by a distance of 20 cm and having a p.d. of
50 V across them.
 SOLUTION
V = 50 V, separation, d = 20 cm = 0.2 m.

The electric field intensity, E =

=
= 250 Vm−1
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

Electric Potential Electric Field Intensity

1.Work done per unit charge Force per unit charge
1.Scalar quantity Vector quantity
1.Measured in volt, V Measured in Vm− or NC−1
 SUMMARY
 A charge is an intrinsic property of an object that determines its electrical behaviour.
Electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged.
 A charged body is one with excess positive or negative charges.
 A body can be charged by friction, induction, contact or by electrical conduction.
 Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
 Coulomb’s law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges
is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between their centres and acts in the direction of the line joining
their centres, and it is a function of the medium in which they are placed.
 Electric field is the region around a charged body where electric force is experienced.
 The electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is the force per unit charge at that
point, the direction of which a unit positive charge would move if it is free to do so. It is
a vector quantity.
 Electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done in moving a unit charge
from infinity to that point. It is a scalar quantity.