Chapter 1:

The Study of Human Development

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Icebreaker: Think, Pair, and Share

Students should find a partner in the class to discuss their expectations of what they will learn
about human development while taking this course

Some questions to get you started:

• What is one major question that you have about human development that you hope this
course will answer?
• Are there aspects of development that you feel you already understand?
• Are there parts of development that you’ve never thought much about? Which ones?

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 Chapter Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1.1 Identify issues and biopsychosocial forces in the study of life-span development
1.2 Describe the theories used in the study of life-span psychology
1.3 Describe the scientific methods used to conduct research in life-span development

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1.1: Thinking About Development

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Key Questions 1.1

• What are the three fundamental issues of development? What are the key aspects of each
one?
• What are the basic forces in the biopsychosocial framework? What are the key aspects of
each?
• What is the neuroscience perspective? What are its advantages in understanding human
development?

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 Recurring Issues in Human Development

• Nature vs. nurture

• Influence of heredity vs. environment
• Continuity vs. discontinuity
• Does development smoothly progress or shift abruptly?
• Universal vs. context-specific development
• Is there just one or multiple ways in which development occurs?

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 Basic Forces in Human Development:
The Biopsychosocial Framework

• Biological forces
• Genetic, health related
• Psychological forces
• Cognitive/perceptual, emotional, and personality
• Sociocultural forces
• Societal, cultural, ethnic, and interpersonal
• Life-cycle forces
• Identical events and different age groups

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Neuroscience: A Window Into Human Development

• Neuroscience is the study of the brain and the nervous system, especially in terms of brain–
behavior relationships
• Helps in understanding interactions among the four forces in the biopsychosocial
framework

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Think, Pair, and Share Activity: Your Experiences

Students should find a partner to begin the activity

• Students, think back over your life experiences or those of your family and friends. How does
your life experience reflect the four developmental forces in the biopsychosocial model?
• Provide one example of each

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1.2: Developmental Theories

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Key Questions 1.2

• What is meant by a developmental theory?

• What are the major aspects of psychodynamic theories of development?
• What are the major versions of learning theories of development? What are the major aspects
of each?
• What are the main points in theories of cognitive development?
• What are the main points in the ecological and systems approach to human development?
• What are the main points of life-span and life-course perspectives of human development?

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 What Is a Theory?

• Theory: an organized set of ideas that is designed to explain development

• Essential for developing predictions about behavior
• Predictions result in research that helps to support or clarify the theory
• There are no truly comprehensive theories of human development

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 Psychodynamic Theory:

• Hold that development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at
different ages
• Perspective traces its roots to Sigmund Freud
• Erik Erikson proposed the first comprehensive life-span view of psychosocial development
in his psychosocial theory of personality

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 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Table 1.1 The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson's Theory

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE AGE CHALLENGE

Basic trust vs. mistrust Birth to 1 year To develop a sense that the world is safe, a "good place"

Autonomy vs. shame 1 to 3 years To realize that one is an independent person who can make
decisions and doubt
Initiative vs. guilt 3 to 6 years To develop the ability to try new things and to handle failure

Industry vs. inferiority 6 years to adolescence To learn basic skills and to work with others

Identity vs. identity confusion Adolescence To develop a lasting, integrated sense of self

Intimacy vs. isolation Young adulthood To commit to another in a loving relationship

Generativity vs. stagnation Middle adulthood To contribute to younger people through childrearing, child care,
mentoring, or other intergenerational work
Integrity vs. despair Late life To view one's life as satisfactory and having been worth living

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Discussion Activity: Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

We are going to discuss Erikson's stages and how they apply to individuals.

• Which of Erikson's stages are you in, according to his theory? What about others in your life:
family, friends, your partner?
• Do you agree or disagree with Erikson's assessment of the central conflict during that stage?
Why?
• Do you think there's anything that Erikson missed about that stage? Explain.

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Learning Theory: Behaviorism

• Operant conditioning
• The consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be repeated.
• A positive or negative reinforcement increases the chance that a behavior will be
repeated.
• A punishment decreases the chance that a behavior will be repeated.

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 Learning Theory: Social Learning Theory

• Observational learning, or imitation

• People learn by watching others.
• Imitation is more likely when the subject of an observation is seen as smart, popular, or
talented.
• Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior.
• Self-efficacy refers to people’s beliefs about their own abilities and talents.

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Cognitive-Developmental Theory (1 of 2)

• Stresses development of thought processes

• Three approaches
• Piaget's approach says that we develop in four discrete stages
• Information-processing theory says that, like computers, we become more efficient at
processing information as we mature
• Vygotsky's theory states that sociocultural expectations we learn at different ages, and our
“apprenticeship” with skilled others, shape development

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
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 Cognitive-Developmental Theory (2 of 2)
Table 1.2 Knowledge Construction Theory Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE APPROXIMATE AGE CHARACTERISTICS
Infant's knowledge of the world is based on senses and motor skills;
Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years
by the end of the period, uses mental representation

Child learns how to use symbols such as words and numbers to

Preoperational thought 2 to 6 years represent aspects of the world but relates to the world only through
his or her perspective

Concrete operational 7 years to early Child understands and applies logical operations to experiences
thought adolescence provided they are focused on the here and now

Formal operational Adolescent or adult thinks abstractly, deals with hypothetical

Adolescence and beyond
thought situations, and speculates about what may be possible

Early adulthood and Knowledge gained from trusted other and what is known is considered
Prereflective reasoning
beyond absolutely correct

Knowledge is uncertain; judgments are viewed as situationally

Quasi-reflective reasoning Mid-20s and beyond
determined and idiosyncratic

Decisions based on best evidence available that are valid; decisions

Reflective reasoning Midlife and beyond
open to revision based on new evidence

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 The Ecological and Systems Approach

• Ecological theory views human development as

inseparable from the environmental context
• No single aspect can adequately explain
development
• Consider all factors—environmental, family,
political, social, etc.—and how they interact
• Bronfenbrenner’s theory (pictured) proposed
that the developing person is embedded in a
series of complex and interactive systems

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 Lawton & Nahemow’s Competence-Environmental
Press Theory

• Adaptation or development depends upon

• the person’s abilities or “competencies”
• the demands the environment (“presses”) places on the person
• Emphasizes how these factors interact to achieve a “best fit”

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 Life-Span Perspective

• Aging is a lifelong process from conception to death

• Many factors influence development; no one factor adequately explains it
• Key features:
• Multidirectionality
• Plasticity
• Historical context
• Multiple causation

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 Selective Optimization With Compensation (SOC)

• Choices determine and regulate development

• Selection
• Elective selection
• Reducing one goal to focus on another
• Loss-based selection

• Reducing involvement because of lack of resources or abilities

• Compensation
• Find alternate ways of meeting goals
• Optimization
• Minimizing losses and maximizing gains

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 The Life-Course Perspective

• Different generations experience/adjust to biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces

within the historical contexts
• Individual timing of life events in relation to external historical events
• Synchronization of individual transitions with collective familial ones
• The impact of earlier life events, as shaped by historical events, on subsequent ones

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 Summary: Theoretical Perspectives on Human
Development (1 of 3)

Table 1.3. Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development

EMPHASES IN
POSITIONS ON DEVELOPMENTAL
PERSPECTIVE EXAMPLES MAIN IDEA BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL
ISSUES
FRAMEWORK
Personality Psychological, social, and life- Nature–nurture interaction, discontinuity,
Erikson's psychosocial
Psychodynamic develops through cycle forces crucial; less universal sequence but individual
theory
sequence of stages emphasis on biological differences in rate
In all theories, some
emphasis on biological and In all theories, strongly nurture,
Environment
Learning Behaviorism psychological, major focus on continuity, and universal principles of
controls behavior
social, little recognition of life learning
cycle
People learn
Social learning theory through modeling
and observing
Main emphasis on biological and
Knowledge construction Thinking develops in social forces, less on Strongly nature until adulthood, discontinuity,
Cognitive
theory a sequence of stages psychological until later life, little and universal sequence of stages
on life cycle

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 Summary: Theoretical Perspectives on Human
Development (2 of 3)

Table 1.3. Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development (continued)

EMPHASES IN
POSITIONS ON DEVELOPMENTAL
PERSPECTIVE EXAMPLES MAIN IDEA BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL
ISSUES
FRAMEWORK
Thought develops by
Emphasis on biological and
Information-processing increases in Nature–nurture interaction, continuity, individual
psychological, less on social and
theory efficiency at handling differences in universal structures
life cycle
information

Development Emphasis on psychological and Nature–nurture interaction, continuity, individual

Vygotsky's theory
influenced by culture social forces differences

Developing person Low emphasis on biological,

Ecological and Nature–nurture interaction, continuity, context-
Bronfenbrenner's theory embedded in a series moderate on psychological and
Systems specific
of interacting systems life cycle, heavy on social
Adaptation is optimal
Competence– Strong emphasis on biological,
when ability and Nature–nurture interaction, continuity, context-
environmental press psychological, and social,
demands are in specific
(Lawton and Nahemow) moderate on life cycle
balance

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 Summary: Theoretical Perspectives on Human
Development (3 of 3)
Table 1.3. Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development (continued)

EMPHASES IN
POSITIONS ON DEVELOPMENTAL
PERSPECTIVE EXAMPLES MAIN IDEA BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL
ISSUES
FRAMEWORK

Baltes's life-span
Development is Strong emphasis on the
Life-Span perspective and selective Nature–nurture interaction, continuity and
multiply determined; interactions of all four forces;
Perspective/ SOC optimization with discontinuity, context-specific
optimization of goals cannot consider any in isolation
compensation (SOC)

Life-course
transitions
decreasingly tied to
Strong emphasis on
Life-Course age; increased Nature–nurture interaction, continuity and
Life-course theory psychological, sociocultural, life
Perspective continuity over time; discontinuity, context-specific
cycle; less on biological
specific life paths
across domains are
interdependent

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 1.3: Doing Developmental
Research

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 Key Questions 1.3

• What are the four approaches researchers use to measure topics of interest in studying
human development? What are the major aspects of each? What are reliability and validity?
• What are the three general designs for research? What are the major aspects of each?
• What are the three specific research designs used in developmental research? What are the
major aspects of each?
• What are the main tools and archives available to help researchers study human
development? What is the main purpose of each?
• What are the techniques researchers use to integrate results from multiple studies?
• What are the ethical procedures researchers must follow in studying human development?
• What are the ways investigators communicate results from research studies?
• What are ways that research affects public policy?

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 Measurement in Human Development Research

• Systematic observation consists of two types

• Naturalistic observation: “real life” observation
• Structured observation: researchers create a situation likely to result in the type of
behavior in which they are interested
• Sampling behavior with tasks
• Example: showing photos to measure emotion recognition accuracy
• Self-reports
• Example: measuring self-esteem using a questionnaire
• Physiological measures
• Example: using galvanic skin response and pupil dilation to measure interest

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 Reliability and Validity

• Reliability: Does this method consistently measure what is being studied?

• Example: IQ test yielding “identical” scores when given twice over a two-week interval

• Validity: Does this accurately measure the variable of interest?

• Example: personality test actually assessing level of openness, neuroticism, extraversion,
etc.

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 Representative Sampling

• The sample must reflect the characteristics of the population of interest

• Populations: Broad groups of people in which researchers may be interested
• Example: adolescent African Americans of low, medium, and high SES
• Sample: A subset of people chosen to well represent the population
• Example: randomly selecting 100 high school students from areas with high SES
diversity

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 General Research Designs

• Correlational studies: Measure the relations between variables (e.g., height and weight)
• Calculating a correlation coefficient (r) between the two variables expresses strength and
direction
• r can range between -1.00 and +1.00 in strength
• r’s magnitude, regardless of sign, shows how much the scores on one variable can
predict the other variable’s scores
• Positive or negative correlation coefficients reveal direction
• Correlation does not prove causation

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Possible Interpretations of a Correlational Study

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 Experimental Studies

• Systematically study the possible “cause and effect” relationship between two variables
• First, manipulate exposure to different levels of a factor (independent variable/IV)
• After exposure to the IV, measure how people score on the behavior of interest (dependent
variable/DV)
• Main question is whether the DV’s scores differ depending upon the level of the IV

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 Qualitative Studies

• Involve gaining in-depth understanding of behavior and what governs it by uncovering

reasons underlying it
• Smaller but focused samples
• Observation over extended periods of time
• Categorize the data into patterns
• Can be conducted for its own sake, as a preliminary step, or as a complement to quantitative
research

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 Designs for Studying Development:
Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Studies
• Longitudinal studies:
• Observe or test one group of individuals at each of several time periods (e.g., every 7
years)
• Expensive and a large time commitment
• Allows examination of (dis)continuity, because the same people were tested across time

• Cross-Sectional studies:
• Observe or test groups of different ages at the same period in time (e.g., 7-year-olds,
14-year-olds, 21-year-olds, etc.)
• More time-effective, less expensive
• Cannot address (dis)continuity because each age group involves different people
• Cohort effects: differences may result from each group’s unique environmental events

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 Designs for Studying Development:
Sequential Studies

• Sequential studies:
• A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
• Allow for flexibility to collect information in several ways
• Avoid cohort effects of cross-sectional designs

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 Integrating Findings from Different Studies

• Meta-analysis
• Analysis of multiple studies that all examined the same research questions and variables
• Allows scientists to verify whether the same relationships among variables are replicated
across multiple studies
• Synthesizes the results

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 Conducting Research Ethically

• Institutional Review Board (IRB) evaluates proposed research to ensure it is conducted

ethically
• Focus is on the rights and protection of research participants
• Minimize and warn of any risks to participants
• Informed consent
• Avoid deception
• Individual results or data must be kept anonymous or confidential

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 Discussion Activity: Participating in Research

• Does being a participant in a scientific study distort real-life behavior?

• What if the only way to collect valid information requires
• putting participants at risk?
• deception, such as not informing participants of the real purpose of the study?

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 Self-Assessment

On your own, think through the different theories of human development covered in this
chapter. Write the following down:

• Which theory do you feel you understand the best?

• Which of the theories do you find the most confusing? Can you explain what you don’t
understand, or are you totally lost?

• Which theory seems the most likely based on your own experience, and why?

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 Summary

Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Identify issues and biopsychosocial forces in the study of life-span development
• Describe the theories used in the study of life-span psychology
• Describe the scientific methods used to conduct research in life-span development

Robert V. Kail | John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development: A Life-Span View, 9th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or
duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 43