Developmental Psychology
St. Scholastica’s College Manila
© Ella Guinto (mguinto@ssc.edu.ph)
01. THE LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE
I. Definition
- the branch of psychology concerned with
the changes in cognitive, motivational,
psychophysiological, and social functioning
that occur throughout the human life span.
- the pattern of movement or change that
begins at conception and continues
throughout the human life span (Santrock,
2019)
II. Importance
- prepares us to take responsibility for
children
- gives us insight and self-awareness about
our own lives
III. Life-Span Expectancy (Philippines)
70.4
67.4
(both (male)
sexes)
Fig. 1. Life expectancy of the Philippines statistic of
2019 by the Global Health Observatory data
repository of WHO, 2020.
IV. Life-Span Perspective (PH)
The perspective that development is
lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional,
plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual;
involves growth, maintenance, and
regulation; and is constructed through
biological, sociocultural, and individual
factors working together.
V. Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective
1. Lifelong – studying the experiences and
psychological orientations of adults at
different points in their lives.
2. Multidimensional – regardless of age,
body, mind, emotions, and relationships,
change is constant and affects each other
3. Multidirectional – throughout life,
components of a dimension expand, and
others shrink
4. Plastic – the capacity for change
5. Multidisciplinary – researchers sharing
interests in unlocking the mysteries of
development
6. Contextual – all development occurs
within a context or setting
7. Normative age-graded influences –
influences in a particular age group
8. Normative history-graded influences –
influences of people in a particular
generation because of historical
circumstances
9. Non-normative life events – unusual
occurrences that have a major impact on
the lives of individuals
10. Growth, maintenance, and regulation of
loss – as individuals age into the middle and
late adulthood, the maintenance and
regulation of loss in their capacities takes
center stage.
73.6
(female)
VI. Contemporary Concerns of Lifespan
development (HEY, PSST)*
1. Health and Wellbeing
2. Parenting and Education
3. Sociocultural contexts and Diversity
4. Social Policy
5. Technology
VII. Sociocultural Context and Diversity
1. Culture – behavior patterns, beliefs, etc.
are a product of a particular group that are
passed on from generations.
2. Ethnicity – rooted in cultural heritage,
nationality, race, religion, and language.
3. Socioeconomic Status – person’s position
within society based on occupational,
educational, and economic characteristics.
4. Gender – characteristics of people as
males or females.
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 VI. 4 AGES
02. THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT
- First Age – Childhood to Adolescence
I. Definitions / Processes (BCS, BECAUSE)*
- Second Age – Prime Adulthood, ages 20-59
- Third Age – Approx., 60-79
1. Biological – changes in physical nature
- Fourth Age – Approx., 80 and older
2. Cognitive – changes in thought,
intelligence, and language
VII. 3 DEV PATTERN
3. Socioemotional – changes in relationships
with other people, emotions, and
- Normal Aging – Most individuals
personality
- Pathological Aging – individuals who show
greater than average decline as they age
II. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
through the adult years
- Successful Aging – individuals whose
Explores links between development,
positive physical, cognitive, and
cognitive processes, and the brain
socioemotional dev is maintained longer,
(Santrock, 2019).
declining later in old age than is the case for
most people.
III. Developmental Social Neuroscience

Examines connections between

socioemotional processes, development,
and the brain (Santrock again, 2019). Age and Conceptions
Happiness of Age
IV. Processes and Periods of Development

The unfolding of life’s periods of

Fig. 2. The significance and relativity of aging.
development is influenced by the
interaction of biological, cognitive, and
VIII. Conceptions of Age
socioemotional processes (Yk who it is,
2019).
- Chronological – no. of years that have
elapsed since birth.
V. Developmental Period / Period of
- Biological – age in terms of death.
Development
- Psychological – adaptive capacities
compared with those of other individuals of
A time frame in a person’s life that is
the same chronological age.
characterized by certain features
- Social – connectedness with others and
(Santroooock, 2019)
the roles individuals adopt.
- PRENATAL – conception to birth
IX. Developmental Issues
- INFANCY – birth to 18-24 months
- EARLY CHILDHOOD – 3-5 years
1. Nature and Nurture - concerns the extent
- LATE CHILDHOOD – 6-10/11 years
to which development is influenced by
- ADOLESCENCE – 10-12 to 18-21 yrs
nature and by nurture.
- EARLY ADULTHOOD – 20s, 30s
2. Stability-Change Issue - the degree to
- MIDDLE ADULTHOOD – 40s, 50s
which early traits and characteristics persist
- LATE ADULTHOOD – 60s, 70s
through life or change
3. Continuity-Discontinuity Issue - the
degree to which development involves

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 either gradual, cumulative change
(continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)
of change.
03. THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
I. Scientific Method
An approach that can be used to obtain
accurate information, includes the ff steps:
- conceptualize the problem
- collect data
- draw conclusions
- revise research
II. Theories
A set of ideas proposed to describe and
explain certain phenomena.
- provides organization of facts and
observations
- guides collection of new facts and obsvs
A good developmental theory should be:
- internally consistent
- falsifiable: hypotheses which can be tested
- supported by scientific data
III. Hypotheses
A specific assumptions and predictions that
can be tested to determine their accuracy,
NULL always predicts no effect between
variables, ALTERNATIVE states an effect.
IV. Assumptions about Human Nature
1. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
- Portrayed children as inherently selfish
and bad and believed that it was society’s
responsibility to teach them to behave in
civilized ways.
2. Jean-Jacques Rosseau (1742-1778)
- Argued that children were innately good,
that they were born with an intuitive
understanding of right and wrong, and that
they would develop in positive directions if
society did not interfere with their natural
tendencies.
3. John Locke (1632-1704)
- Theorized the Tabula Rosa or ‘blank slate’;
children will be good/bad based on their
parental and environmental experiences.
4. Nature / Nurture – Heredity or
Environment
5. Active / Passive Development – Humans
shape their lives; products of forces beyond
their control
6. Continuity / Discontinuity – Stages or
gradual change
6.a. Quantitative – degree of trait or
behavior
6.b. Qualitative – transformational changes
04. THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
I. Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
- behavior and problems are the result of
experiences early in life (first 5 yrs)
- adult personality - resolution of conflicts
between sources of pleasure at each stage
and the demands of reality
I.a. Instincts, Goals, and Motives
2 kinds of biological instincts:
I.a.I. Eros (life) – helps child to survive
I.a.II. Thanatos (death) – a set of destructive
forces present in all human beings
I.b. Id, Ego, and Superego (psychic energy),
regular conflicts between these 3:
I.b.I. Id – human’s instinctual nature
I.b.II. Ego – rational and objective
I.b.III. Superego – internalized morals
I.c. Child moves through 5 stages
- conflict between ID and SUPEREGO >>
creates anxiety >> EGO defends with
defense mechanisms
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 I.d. Early experiences impact personality
I.d.I. Oral – optimistic & gullible vs hostile
I.d.II. Anal – fastidious & orderly vs messy
I.d.III. Phallic – flirty & promiscuous vs chaste
To note: Phallic (3-6 yrs)
- Oedipus and Electra Complex
- Incestuous desire for parent of opposite sx
- Anxiety and fear as a result
Solution: identification with same sx parent
II. Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial
Development
- most influential, neo-freudian
- person exps psychosocial crisis which
could have +/- outcomes for personality dev
- primary motivation for human behavior is
social and reflects desire to belong
- developmental change occurs throughout
the lifespan

What’s the difference with Freud’s?

- less emphasis on sexual urges
•Birth-1.5 years - more emphasis on rational ego
•Infant's pleasure centers in the mouth - more + and adaptive view of humans
Oral
- believed development continues
•1.5-3 years
- emphasized psychosocial conflicts
•Focuses on the anus
Anal
Trust vs Mistrust
•3-6 years •RESPONSIVE CAREGIVER KEY
•Focuses on the genitals
Phallic •Learns to trust caregiver to meet ends

Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt

•6 years-Puberty
•Represses sexual interest and develops social and •EARLY CHILDHOOD
Latency intellectual skills •Learns to assert will and do for themselves

•Puberty onwards
Initiative vs Guilt
•Sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure •PRE-SCHOOL
Genital becomes outside of family
•Devising/carrying out plans without hurting others

Industry vs Inferiority
Fig. 3. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages •SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN
•Master social skills on par with others
I.e. Strengths and Weaknesses
Identity vs Role Confusion
I.e.I. Strengths •ADOLESCENCE
- awareness of unconscious motivation •Establish social and vocational identities
- emphasized importance of early emotions and Intimacy vs Isolation
experiences
•YOUNG ADULT
- neo-freudians have been influential, a •Establishing intimate relations with others
psychoanalytical approach with extending his
theories towards social or cultural aspects of Generativity vs Stagnation
psychoanalysis over biological •MIDDLE AGE
•Feels productive and helping next gen
I.e.II. Weaknesses Integrity vs Despair
- ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable/falsifiable
•OLDER ADULT
- not supported by research
•Views life as meaningful to face death w/ no ragrets
- downright weird

Fig. 4. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

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II.a. Strengths and Weaknesses
• Concrete op (7-11)
II.a.I. Strengths
- emphasis on rational and adaptiveness
- interaction of biological and socials
- focus on identity crisis of adolescence is relevant
• Formal op (12+)
II.a.II. Weaknesses
- sometimes vague, difficult to test
- doesn’t explain how dev comes about
II.
Fig. 5. In-depth summarization of Erikson’s
05. THE COGNITIVE THEORIES
I. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
- children go through 4 stages of cognitive
development
- processes underlie this cognitive construction
of the world: organization and adaptation
I.a. 4 stages of cognitive development
1. Sensorimotor – 0-2
2. Preoperational – 2-7
3. Concrete op – 7-11
4. Formal op – 12+
• Sensorimotor (0-2)
- uses senses/motor behavior to understand
world with physical actions
- begins with reflexes but learns symbolic use of
languages, instinctual actions at birth, can plan
solutions mentally
• Pre-operational (2-7)
- language development, pretend play, solve
problems mentally
- not yet logical, egocentric, fooled by
perception (uto-uto)
- logical operations, mentally classify/act on
concrete symbolized objects
- solves practical problems via trial and error
-can now reason with concrete events into
different sets
- thinks abstractly, hypothetical, trace long-term
effects of behavior
- forms hypotheses and test them empirically
(observation or pure logic)
- reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical
ways
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
- emphasizes how culture and social
interactions to guide cognitive development
- cognitive dev involves learning to use the
inventions of society: language, maths, memory
strats
- individuals develop a gradual increase in
capacity for processing information, allowing to
acquire increasingly complex knowledge and
skills
II.a. Microgentic method – seeks to discover not
just what children know but the cognitive
processes involved in how they acquired the
knowledge
II.b. Strengths and Weaknesses
II.b.I. Strengths
- well-accepted by developmentalists
- well-researched, mostly supported
- influenced education and parenting
II.b.II. Weaknesses
- ignores motivation and emotions
- stages not universal
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 of others and then sometimes adopt this
06. THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES behavior themselves.

I. Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Behavior
- basically association in learning

UCS (UnConditioned Stimulus)

•Built-in, unlearned stimulus

UCR (UnConditioned Response) Cognitive

BSCM Environment

•Automatic, unlearned response

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)
•Stimulus which causes learned response

CR (Conditioned Response) Person

•Learned response

Fig. 6. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning and introduction
to stimuli and response
II. Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
- consequences of a behavior produce
changes in the probability of the behavior’s
occurrence.
- rewards and punishments shape dev
Fig. 8. Bandura’s relativity theory in social conditioning
III.a. Strengths and Weaknesses
III.a.I. Strengths
- precise and testable theory
- carefully controlled experiments
- practical applications across lifespan
III.a.II. Weakness
- inadequate account of lifespan changes
- ignore genetic and maturation processes

07. THE ETHOLOGICAL THEORIES

I. Konrad Lorenz’s Research with Greylag

Geese
- helped bring etymology to prominence
- imprinting, the rapid and innate learning
that involves the attachment to the first
moving object seen

Fig. 7. Skinner’s theory in the pleasant and unpleasant II. John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
stimulus with the response of administering and
- attachment to a caregiver over the 1st year
withdrawal
of life
III. Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory - has important consequences throughout
the life span
- holds that behavior, environment, and
cognition are the key factors of dev II.a. Strengths
- more on observational learning or - focus on the biological and evolutionary
imitation/modelling basis of development
- people cognitively represent the behavior - use of careful observations in naturalistic
settings

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III. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Systems Approach
I.a.II. Laboratory – a controlled setting
where many of the complex factors of the
Microsystem
‘real world’ are absent.

Mesosystem
I.a.III. Naturalistic observation – observing
behavior in real world settings, making no
Exosystem effort to manipulate or control the sitch

Macrosystem I.b. Survey and Interview

- quickest way to get info
Chronosystem
- standard set of q’s is used to obtain
people’s self-reported attitudes or beliefs
about a particular topic
CHILD

I.c. Standardized Test

- a test uniform procedures for
Fig. 9. Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model in 1994
administration and scoring
- Micro – immediate enviro - many standardized tests allow a person’s
- Meso – linkages between micro performance to be compared with the
- Exo – indirectly exp’d linkages performance of others
- Macro – culture of systems
- Chrono – patterning of enviro, events, I.d. Case Study
transitions over life course, sociohistorical - in-depth look at individual
conditions - provides dramatic, in-depth portrayal but
must be cautious when generalizing
III.a. Strengths and Weaknesses
information
III.a.I. Strengths
I.e. Physiological Measures
- systemic exam of micro and micro
- hormone lvls are increasingly used in dev
dimensions of enviro systems
research (i.e., cortisol, fMRI, EEG)
- carefully controlled experiments
- practical applications across lifespan
II. Research Designs
III.a.II. Weakness
II.a. Descriptive Research
- giving inadequate attention to bio factors
- designed to observe and record behavior
- too little emphasis on cognitive factors

08. THE ECLECTIC THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS II.b. Correlational Research

- describe the strength of the relationship
I. Research on Lifespan Development
between 2 or more events/characteristics

I.a. Methods for Collecting Data

II.b.I. Correlation Coefficient
- a # based on stat analysis that is used to
I.a.I. Observation
describe the degree of assoc., between 2
- for obsvs to be effective, they must be
variables and ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
systematic
- we must know whom we are observing,
when and where we will observe, how the
obsvs will be made, how they will be
recorded

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II.c. Experimental Research
Fig. 10. An example of experimental research of a
newborn’s breathing and sleeping patterns
II.c.I. Experiment
- carefully regulated procedure in which 1
or more of the factors believed to influence
the behavior studied are manipulated while
all the other factors are constant
- independent and dependent variables
- experiment and control groups
III. Time Span of Research
III.a. Cross-Sectional Approach
- strat that simultaneously compares indivs of diff ages
(i.e., three groups of children: 5, 8, and 11 yr olds,
comparing their level of attachment to parents)
III.b. Longitudinal Approach
- strat in which the same indivs are studied over a
period, usually several years or more (i.e., life
satisfaction of the same adults might be assessed
periodically at the ages of 20, 35, 45, 65, and 90)
III.c. Cohort Effects
- cohort – a group of people who are born at a similar
point in history and share similar exps (e.g., Vietnam
war, Japanese occupation)
- shared exps may produce a range of differences
among cohorts
- accounts are little to no similarity
- determined by a person’s time of birth, era, or
generation but not to actual age
III.d. Generations
- Baby Boomers (1946-1964) – represents spike in births
after WWII; largest gen to enter adulthood in the US;
competitive, strong work ethic, goal-centric, team-
oriented
- Gen X (1965-1980) – described as lacking an identity
and savvy loners
- Gen Y/Millenials (1980-1994) – 1st gen to come of in
21st century; 2 main characteristics: connection to
technology and ethnic diversity; connected to family,
confident, and ambitious; willing to sacrifice careers for
balance and quality of life
- Gen Z (1995-2009) – Dot com kids or ‘Generation
Connected’; independent, self-confident pero iyakin,
autonomous; tend to absorb info visually; absorbs a lot
of info bc of connection thru social media;
environmentally aware; great multitaskers; criticism:
tendency toward entitlement
- Gen Alpha (2010-present) – ‘Digital Natives’, most
materially endowed and technological literacy will
surpass any other past gen.
IV. Conducting Ethical Research
- Psychological Association of the
Philippines (PAP) as lifted from the
American Psychological Association (APA)
ethics guidelines address:
> informed consent
> confidentiality
> debriefing
> deception
IV.a. Informed Consent
- all participants must know what their
participation will involve and what risks
might develop
IV.b. Confidentiality
- researchers are responsible for keeping all
the data they gather on individuals
completely confidential and, when possible,
completely anonymous
IV.c. Debriefing
- after completion, participants should be
informed of its purpose and the methods
that were used
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 IV.d. Deception - Allows for the researcher to focus on a single
- researchers must ensure that the child, observing in an in-depth fashion that is
deception will not harm the participants not practical with large groups
and that the participants will be debriefed 7. In observational methods, time sampling
as soon as possible after the study is methods are best used:
completed - When studying groups of subjects
8. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
V. Minimizing Bias proposed eight stages. Which of the following
best represents two of these stages?
V.a. Gender Bias - Industry vs Inferiority and Ego Integrity vs
- preconceived notion about the abilities of Despair
women and men that prevented indivs from 9. A longitudinal design is distinguished by its
pursuing their own interests and achieving process of:
potential - Sampling children and observing them
repeatedly at different points throughout their
V.b. Cultural and Ethnic Bias lives
- growing realization that research on 10. Which of the following statements is not
lifespan dev needs to include representative of psychodynamic theory?
diversity/ethnic groups - Human beings and their environments can be
- minority were included and thought of as a collection of systems where a
samples/scores don’t fit the norm, they system is defined as being composed of a
were viewed as confounds or ‘noise’ in data number of elements which are organized in
and to be discounted. some fashion

Quiz 1 review/answer sheet

this covers Week 2-3: Theories and Research on Lifespan Development
09. THE GENETIC FOUNDATIONS OF
1. Correlation methods are also known as: DEVELOPMENT
- Inferential
2. Generativity is a concept that means: Genes – segments of DNA located along the
- The creation of something (children or more chromosomes
abstract examples such as an idea or art) Chromosomes – store and transmit genetic information
becomes the central task DNA – substance of which genes and chromosomes are
3. Jean Piaget is best known for which research made
methodology?
- Observational methods
4. Observational learning (or modeling) is defined
as:
- The acquisition of a behavior through the
observation or limitation of others around
5. Evolutionary developmental theory is best
defined as:
- The study of the genetic and ecological
mechanisms that govern the development of
social and cognitive competencies common to
all human beings and the epigenetic processes
that adapt these competencies to local Fig. 11. Condensed version of Genetic interrelation
conditions.
6. Which of the following statements best
describes Case Study methodology?

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I. Genetic Foundation
• Human Genome – a complete set of
developmental instruction for creating proteins
that initiate the making of a human organism
• Mitosis – the reproduction of cells
• Meiosis – cell division that forms sperm and
eggs (aka gametes)
• Fertilization – a stage in reproduction when an
egg and sperm fuse to create a single cell
* zygote – a single cell formed thru fertilization
II. Sources of Variability
- Combining the genes of 2 parents in
offspring increases genetic variability
- Chromosomes in the zygote are not exact
copies of those in the mother's ovaries and
the father's testes
- Identical (monozygotic) twins develop from
a single zygote that splits into two
- Fraternal (dizygotic) twins develop from
separate eggs and sperm
- Mutated genes permanently altered
segments of DNA
III. Genetic Principles
- Genotype – a person’s genetic material
- Phenotype – observable characteristics
- Dominant-Recessive Genes Principle – a
DOMINANT gene always exerts its effects,
overriding the potential influence of
recessive gene
* A recessive gene only exerts influence if
both genes in a pair are recessive
- Sex-linked Genes
* x-linkd inheritance occurs when a
mutated gene is carried on the X chromo
i.e., hemophilia, an inherited bleeding
disorder in which the blood does not clot
properly (see A Royal Disease for more info)
- Genetic Imprinting – when genes have
differing effects depending on whether they
are inherited from mom or dad
- Polygenic Inheritance – characteristics that
are determined by the interaction of many
different genes (gene-gene interactions)
- Chromosomal Abnormalities – a disorder
characterized by a morphological or
numerical alteration in single or multiple
chromosomes, affecting autosomes, sex
chromosomes or both
i.e., Down Syndrome, caused by extra copy
of chromosome 21 or Trisomy 21
- Sex-linked Chromosomal Abnormalities –
inherited through one of the sex
chromosomes, which are the X and Y
chromosomes
* Klinefelter syndrome – males born with
XXY instead of XY
* Fragile X – occurs more than in males than
females
* Turner syndrome – females born with XO
rather than XX, sometimes causing
infertility
* XYY syndrome – males with extra Y
chromosome
TIP: all wombs are female (XX) until the Y chromosome
kicks in (XY male)
Fig. 12. Chromosomal Abnormalities with descriptions, treatments,
and frequency
- Gene-linked Abnormalities
* phenyl-keton-uria (PKU) – a genetic
disorder in which an individual cannot
properly metabolize an essential amino acid
called phenylalanine (building block of
protein)
* sickle-cell anemia – a genetic disorder that
affects the red blood cells and occurs most
often in people of African descent
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Fig. 13. Gene-linked abnormalities with descriptions, treatments, and
incidences
Minnesota Twin Registry
- started in 1983 to establish a registry of all twins born
in Minnesota from 1936 – 1955 used for psych research
- primarily conducted personality and interests tests
with its 8k+ twin paris and family members via mail
Minnesota Twin Study of Adult Development
1. Genetic factors appear to influence personality,
mental, and activity-level changes as adults become
older;
2. Maintaining an active lifestyle will contribute to more
successful aging;
3. Continuing to engage in intellectual activities will help
adults retain cognitive functioning as they age;
4. Keeping an active social life will contribute to
stronger feelings of happiness and well-being.
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart
- started in 1979 by Thomas J. Bouchard
- an identical twin reared away from his or her co-twin
seems to have about an equal chance of being similar to
the co-twin in terms of personality, interests, and
attitudes as one who has been reared with his or her co-
twin.
The Jim Twins
- adopted at the age of 4 weeks
- both adopting couples unknown to each other
- upon reunion of twins at 39 yrs old
- There the twins complete personality and intelligence
tests, and they provide detailed medical histories,
including information about diet and smoking, exercise
habits, chest X-rays, heart stress tests, and EEGs
Fig. 14. Minnesota Study of Twins data sheet
10. THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
I. Natural Selection
- an evolutionary process by which those individuals of a
species that are best adapted are the ones that survive
and reproduce
i.e., the ability to tolerate the sugar and lactose in milk
since some adults are unable to drink milk bc their body
switches off the intestinal production of lactase, the
enzyme that digests the sugar in milk after weaning.
II. Adaptive Behavior
- the behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in
the natural habitat
i.e., avoiding danger, safe food handling, managing
money, making friends, the practical life skills.
III. Evolutionary Psychology
- emphasizes the importance of adaptation,
reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” in shaping
behavior
- evol psych approach is just one theory of many
(limitations, weaknesses, and its criticisms)
III.a. Bidirectional View – environmental and biological
conditions influence each other;
- evolution gives us bodily structures and biological
potentialities, but it does not dictate behavior
- people create behavior in the context of culture
IV. Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
- extended childhood period allows time to develop a
large brain and learn complexity of human society
- many evolved psychological mechanisms are domain-
specific
- evolved mechanisms are not always adaptive in
contemporary society
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 child adopted later on
11. REPRODUCTIVE CHALLENGES AND CHOICES * somewhat more likely to exp
psychological or school-related problems
I. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests - involve blood
than non-adopted children
tests, imaging studies, chromosome analysis
* no scientific diffs in antisocial behavior or
and other genetic testing to assess your
self-esteem
health as well as the baby's health
* vast majority of adopted children adjust
effectively and most parents are satisfied
I.a. Ultrasound Sonography – high-
with their decision to adopt
frequency sound waves used to create a
visual representation of fetus’s inner
structures 12. HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION

I. Behavior Genetics - seeks to discover the

I.b. Fetal MRI – magnetic resonance
influence of heredity and environment on
imaging designed to diagnose fetal
individual differences in human traits and
malformations
development
* Twin studies: comparing identical
I.c. Chorionic Villus Sampling – small sample
(monozygotic) twins with fraternal
of placenta is removed to detect genetic
(dizygotic)
and chromosomal abnormalities
* Adoption studies: whether adopted
children are more like their adoptive
I.d. Amniocentesis – samples amniotic fluid
parents who provided a home environment
to test for chromosomal or metabolic
or more like bio parents who contributed to
disorders
heredity
I.e. Maternal Blood Screening – identifies
II. Heredity-Environment Correlations
pregnancies with elevated risk for certain
birth defects
II.a. Passive - occur because biological
parents, who are genetically related to the
I.f. Fetal Sex Determinant – noninvasive
child, provide a rearing environment for the
tekniks have been able to detect the sex of
child
the fetus at an earlier point
i.e., musically inclined parents = musically
inclined children bc of rich environment in
II. Infertility and Reproductive Technology –
music
the inability to conceive a child after 12
months of attempting
II.b. Evocative - occur because a child’s
genetically influenced characteristics elicit
II.a. in vitro Fertilization (IVF) – egg and
certain types of environments
sperm are combined in a laboratory dish;
i.e., happy outgoing child smiles and
fertilized egg in transferred to woman’s
friendly responses from others
uterus
* success depends on woman’s age
II.c. Active (niche-pick) - occur when
* increases risk of multiple births aka
children seek out environments that they
- higher risk of life-threatening problems
find compatible and stimulating.
- health risk to mother
i.e., libraries, sports, music store to actively
- possible psychological effects on child
seek out by children bc of intellectual
interests
II.b. Adoption – an alternative to infertility
treatment
* child adopted early in life fare better than

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III. Epigenetic View – emphasizes that * rapid growth and change
development is the results of an ongoing, * viability – age at which a fetus has a
bidirectional interchange between heredity chance of surviving outside the womb (24
and environment weeks)

IV. Gene x Environment Interaction (GxE) – the

interaction of a specific measured variation
in DNA and a specific measured aspect of
the environment

13. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

I. Conception – occurs when a single sperm

cell from the male unites with an ovum
(egg)

II. Prenatal Development – the process that

occurs during the 40 weeks prior to the
birth of a child and heavily influenced by
genetics

III. Periods of Prenatal Development Fig. 15. Milestones of Prenatal Development (source: Iowa State
University in Parenting and Family Diversity Issues)
- Germinal Period – first 2 weeks after
IV. The Brain – babies have ~100B neurons at
conception, zygote created
birth; takes shape during 1st and 2nd
* rapid cell division
trimesters, increasing connectivity and
* blastocyst – group of cells after about 1
functioning occur from 3rd trimester to 2
week
years of age
* trophoblast – outer layer of cells that later
provides nutrition and support for the
IV.a. Neural Tube – develops 18-24 days
embryo
after conception
* implantation – attachment of zygote to
* Anacephaly - a serious neural tube defect
uterine wall, 10-14 AFTER conception
in which a baby is born without parts of the
brain and skull.
- Embryonic Period – occurs from 2-8 weeks
* Spina bifida - occurs when the spine and
after conception
spinal cord don't form properly.
* 3 layers: ANDOderm, MESOderm,
ECTOderm
IV.b. Neurogenesis – the gen of new
* amnion – bag that contains a clear fluid
neurons, begins at 5th prenatal week and
(amniotic) in which embryo floats
continues thru prenatal period
* umbilical cord – connects bebi to placenta
* placenta – group of tissues containing
IV.c. Neuronal Migration – occurs ~6-24 wks
mother and bebi, intertwined blood vessels
after conception; cells move outward from
* organogenesis – process of organ
their point of origin to their appropriate
formation during the first 2 months of
locations
prenatal dev

IV.d. Neural Connectivity – develops at 23rd

- Fetal Period – begins 2 months after
prenatal week connections between
conception and lasts until birth
neurons benigns to occur

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V. Teratology & Hazards to Prenatal
Development
Teratogen – any agent that can cause a
birth defect or negatively alter cognitive
and behavioral outcomes
ie., drugs, incompatible blood types, enviro
pollutants, infection diseases, nutritional
deficiencies, maternal stress, old age
V.a. Dose – greater the dose, greater the
effect
V.b. Genetic Susceptibility – linked to the
genotype of the pregnant woman and
genotype of the embryo or fetus
V.c. Time of Exposure – exposure to
teratogens does more damage when it stays
for longer
V.d. Prescription Drugs – antibiotics,
antidepressants, some hormones
V.e. Non-prescription Drugs – aspirin, diet
pills, OTC meds
V.f. Psychoactive Drugs – acts on nervous
system to alter states of consciousness,
modify perceptions, alter moods
V.g. Caffeine – small risk of miscarriage; low
birth weight for those consuming >150mg
daily; FDA recommends not consuming
caffeine when preggo
V.h. Alcohol – light to moderate drinking
has been assoc w negative effects on fetus
(Fetal Alcohol Syndrome); FDA recommends
absolutely no alcohol consumption during
pregnancy
V.i. Nicotine – preterm births/low birth
weight; fetal or neonatal death; respiratory
problems for baby; sudden infant death
syndrome; ADHD
V.j. Cocaine (WHYY??) – reduced birth
weight, length, head circumference;
impaired connectivity of the thalamus &
prefrontal cortex
V.k. Marijuana – exposure related to lower
intelligence; low birth weight, neonatal ICU
V.l. Heroin - infants whose mothers are
addicted shows several behavioral
difficulties at birth and attention deficits
may appear later in development
V.m. Incompatible blood types (Rh factor) –
mom’s immune system to produce
antibodies that will attach the fetus
V.n. Environmental Hazards – radiation,
pollutants, toxic waste
V.o. Maternal Disease – STDs, rubella,
jabetis
V.p. Maternal Factors – diet and nutrition,
age, emotional stress/state
V.q. Paternal Factors – exposure to
teratogens, paternal age
VI. Prenatal Care – screening for manageable
conditions, treatable diseases; medical care;
educational, social, and nutritional services
14. THE BIRTH PROCESS
Stage 1: uterine contractions begin at 15 to 20 minutes
apart and last up to 1 minute, becoming closer and
more intense with time
Stage 2: baby's head begins to move through dilated
cervix opening and eventually emerges from the
mother's body
Stage 3: umbilical cord, placenta, and other membranes
are detached and expelled (afterbirth)
I. Childbirth Setting and Attendants
- 99% deliveries take place in hospitals
- lying-in or maternity clinics
- compared to doctors, midwives: typically
spend more time than doctors counselling
and educates patients
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 - provide more emotional support
- typically present during the entire labor
and delivery process
II. Methods of Childbirth
Typical pain medications:
- analgesia – pain relief
- anesthesia – blocks sensation in area of
the body and also consciousness
- oxytocics – synthetic hormones used to
stimulate contractions
II.a. Natural Childbirth – aims to reduce pain
by decreasing fear and using
breathing/relaxation tekniks
- waterbirth – bathtub with warm water
- massage
- acupuncture – fine needles in specific
locations of the body
- hypnosis – induction of psychological state
of altered attention and awareness
- music therapy – uses music to reduce
stress and manage pain
II.b. Prepared Childbirth – special breathing
tekniks; education about anaphy (see
Lamaze Method)
II.c. Cesarean Delivery – baby is removed
from mom’s uterus thru incision made in
abdomen
III. Transition from Fetus to Newborn
III.a. Anoxia – fetus has insufficient supply
of oxen
III.b. Apgar Score/Scale – assessed at 1-5
mins after birth; The higher the score, the
better the baby is doing after birth.
Fig. 16. Apgar Scale/Score
IV. Preterm and Small for Date Infants
- Low Birth Weight Infants – weigh <5lbs,
8oz at birth
- Preterm Infants – those born >3wks before
full term
- Small For Date Infants – birth weight
below normal when the length of the
pregnancy is considered
- Rate of Preterm Births increased – number
of births to moms 35 yrs or older, rates of
multiple births, stress, substance abuse
- Causes of Low Birth Weight – poor health
and nutrition, cigarette smoking, adolescent
births, substance abuse
IV.a. Nurturing Low Birth Weight and
Preterm Infants
* kangaroo care – skin to skin contact
* massage therapy
* breastfeeding
15. THE POSTPARTUM PERIOD
- Last about 6 weeks or until the mom’s body has
completed its adjustment and has returned to a nearly
pre-pregnant state
I. Physical Adjustments
- Fatigue
- Hormone changes
- Return to menstruation
- Weight loss or return to exercise
I.a. Involution – uterus returns to its pre-pregnant size,
5-6 weeks after birth
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II. Emotional and Psychological Adjustments
- Emotional fluctuations
- Baby Blues – feeling of sadness or moodiness, typically
last 2 weeks
- Postpartum Depression

III. A Father’s Adjustments

- Many fathers feel that the baby gets all of the
mother's attention
- Father's reaction is improved if he has taken childbirth
classes and is an active participant in the baby's care
IV. Bonding
- Formation of a connection, especially a physical bond,
between parents and the newborn in the period shortly
after birth
16. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY &
TODDLERHOOD
Infancy - characterized by the most rapid velocity of
growth of any of the postnatal stages, the period from
birth through the completion of the 12th month of life
Newborn - the period of the newborn’s growth and
development over the first 1-2 months is known as the
neonatal period of development.
Fig. 17. Percent Distribution of Registered Live Births by Birth Weight,
Philippines 2019
III. The Brain
- Electroencephalogram EEG – measures the
brain’s electrical activity
- Near-infrared Spectroscopy fNIRS – studies
infants’ brain activity
- Shaken Baby Syndrome – brain swelling and
hemorrhaging usually caused by forcefully
shaking an infant; aka “abusive head
trauma” or “whiplash shaken infant
syndrome”

I. Physical Growth and Development III.a. Mapping of the Brain

- 2 halves/hemispheres
I.a. Cephalocaudal Pattern – earliest growth - 4 lobes of the brain
always occurs at the top—the head—with 1. Frontal Lobe – voluntary movement,
physical growth and differentiation of thinking, personality, intentionality,
features gradually working their way down purpose
from top to bottom 2. Occipital Lobe – vision
3. Temporal Lobe – hearing, language
I.b. Proximodistal Pattern – growth starts at processing, memory
the center of the body and moves toward 4. Parietal Lobe – registering spatial
the extremities location, attention, motor control

II. Height and Weight – Median birth weight of

Filipino babies was about 3,000 grams or
3kg
* Most of the newborns are 18-22” long and
weigh 5-10lbs
* Grows about 1” monthly during 1st year
* Infants weight ~26-32lbs and avg 32-35”
in height by 2nd year

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III.a.I. Lateralization – specialization of function in one
hemisphere of the cerebral cortex
III.a.II. Brain Plasticity – the capacity of various parts of
the cerebral cortex to take over functions of damaged
regions; declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
lateralize
III.b. Changing in Neurons
- Neuron – a nerve cell that handles information
processing
1. Axon – carries signal away from the cell body
2. Dendrites – carry signals towards it
3. Myelin Sheath – insulated axons and helps electrical
signals travel faster down the axon
4. Synapses – tiny gaps between neurons’ fibers
5. Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers released
into the synaptic cleft by neurons
5.1. Major Classes of Neurotransmitters
- Adrenaline – fight or flight
- Noradrenaline – concentration
- Dopamine – pleasure
- Serotonin – mood
- GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid) – calming
- Acetylcholine – learning
- Glutamate – memory
- Endorphins – euphoria
Fig. 19. Parts of a Neuron
6. Cell Body – organizes and keeps cell functional
7. Cell Membrane – protects the cell
8. Node of Ranvier – allows diffusion of ions
9. Schwann Cell – produces myelin sheath
10. Nucleus – controls entire neuron
11. Axon Terminal – forms junctions with other cells
- Myelination – process of encasing axons with fat cells,
begins prenatally and continues after birth to
adolescence to adulthood
IV. Changes in Regions of the Brain
- Blooming and pruning vary by brain region
- Peak of synaptic overproduction in visual cortex ff by a
gradual retraction
- Heredity and environment influence the timing and
course
- Pace of myelination varies
V. Early Experience and the Brain
- Deprived environment = depressed brain activity
- Tiny bursts of electricity shoot throughout the brain,
knitting together into circuits
VI. Neuroconstructivist View
- Biological processes and environmental conditions
influence brain development
- Brain has plasticity and context dependent
- Cognitive development is closely linked to brain
development (duh)
VII. Sleep
VII.a. Infant – sleeps ~18 hrs a day
- Nighttime Waking – most common infant sleep-related
problem
* maternal depression during pregnancy
* early intro to solid food
* infant TV viewing
* child care attendance
- REM sleep – eyes flutter beneath closed lids
- Shared Sleeping - Cultural variations influence infant
sleeping patterns
- Sudden Infant Death Syndrome SIDS – occurs when
infants stop breathing during the night, die suddenly
without any apparent reason; born prematurely or
having low birthweight NHS speculates
* Risks of SIDS is highest at 2-4 months of age
* Highest SIDS rate: New Zealand, USA
* Lowest SIDS rate: Japan and Netherlands
* SIDS rarity in the Philippines
VIII. Nutrition
- Should consume ~50 calories daily each pound they
weigh
- As motor skills improve, infants also (i.e., how they
eat)
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VIII.a. Breast vs Bottle Feeding
- Breastfeeding is better for baby’s health
Benefits:
* fewer GI infections
* fewer infections of the lower respi tract
* protects against wheezing
* less likely to develop ENT infections in past year when
they were 6 years old than their counterparts who had
been breastfed for 3 months or less
* less likely to become overweight/obese in childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood
* have lower rates of SIDS
* less likely to be hospitalized than formula-fed
counterparts
- Outcomes for the mother:
* lowers breast cancer in women
* reduction of ovarian cancer
* reduction in type 2 jabetis
- BUT mothers should not breastfeed when:
* infected with HIV or any other infectious diseases
* if she has active TB
* if she is taking any drugs
17. THE LEARNING CAPACITIES
I. Classical Conditioning – a form of learning that
involves associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus
that leads to a reflexive response
II. Operant Conditioning – a form of learning in which a
spontaneous behavior is followed by a stimulus that
changes the probability that the behavior will occur
again
II.a. Reinforcer (+) – increases the occurrence of
a response
II.b. Punishment (-) – removing desirable
stimulus, presenting an unpleasant one to
decrease occurrence of a response
III. Habituation – gradual reduction in the strength of a
response due to repetitive stimulation
IV. Imitation – learning by copying the behavior or
another person
18. THE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
I. Dynamic Systems Theory – to develop motor skills for
perceiving and acting; infants must perceive something
in enviro that motivates them to act and use their
perceptions to fine-tune their movements
II. Reflexes – newborn baby’s most obvious organized
patterns of behavior and carried survival mechs; allows
infants to respond adaptively to their environment
before they have had the opportunity to learn
II.a. Rooting Reflex – when infant’s cheek is
stroked, or the side of the mouth is touched
they turn to that side
II.b. Sucking Reflex – when newborns
automatically suck an obj in their mouth
II.c. Moro Reflex – response to a sudden,
intense noise or movement
II.d. Babinski Reflex – after the sole of the foot
has been firmly stroked (kiliti)
II.e. Grasping Reflex – when something touches
infant’s palms
III. Gross Motor Skills
III.a. The Development of Posture
- Posture - dynamic process that is linked with sensory
information in the skin, joints, and muscles, which tell
us where we are in space
- Newborn infants cant voluntarily control their posture
III.b. Learning to Walk
- Locomotion and postural control are closely linked
- Practice is especially important in learning to walk
III.c. 1st year: Motor Development Milestones
0-1 Prone, lift head
2-4 Prone, chest up, use of arms to support
2-5 Roll over
3-6 Support some weight with legs
5-8 Sit without support
5-10 Stand without support, pull self to stand
7-13 Walk using furniture to support
10-14 Stand alone easily
11-15 Walk alone easily
III.d. 2nd year (terror two’s)
- Toddlers become more motorically skilled and mobile
13-18 pull toy attached to string and use hands, legs to
climb a number of steps
18-24 walk quick, run stiffly for short distance, balance
on their feet in a squatting position, kick ball without
falling, jump in place
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IV. Fine Motor Skills – involve more finely tuned
movements, such as dexterity
IV.a. Types of Grasps
- Palmar Grasp – whole hand grasp
- Pincer Grasp – small objs with thumb and forefinger
IV.b. Perceptual-Motor coupling and experience
- Perception of movement and touch combined with
visual perception are known correlates of hand skills
(i.e., reaching and grasping)
19. THE SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT
- Sensation – when info interacts with sensory receptors
(i.e., eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, skin)
- Perception – interpretation of what is sense
I. The Ecological View – directly perceive info that exists
in the world around us; brings contact with the enviro
so we can interact and adapt with it
I.a. Affordances – opportunities for interaction offered
by objects that fit within our capabilities to perform
activities
II. Visual Perception
II.a. Visual Acuity and Human Faces – since they are
possibly the most important visual stimuli in children’s
social enviro; newborns cannot see small things that are
far away, vision estimated to be 20/240
II.b. Habituation and Dishabituation
II.b.I. Habituation – decreased responsiveness after
repeated presentation of stimulus (nasanay na)
II.b.II. Dishabituation – recovery of habituated response
after a change in stimulation
II.c. Color Vision
II.c.I.4-8 weeks – infants can discriminate colors
II.c.II. 4 months – they have color preferences or
favorite colors
II.d. Perceptual Constancy: Size
- an object remains the same even though the retinal
image of the object changes as you move toward or
away from the object
- further away an obj is , the smaller the image in our
eyes
- babies young as 3 months of age shows size constancy
II.e. Perceptual Constancy: Shape
- recognition of an obj remains the same shape even tho
orientation has changed
- babies young as 3 months of age shows shape
constancy
II.f. Perception of Occluded Objects
- infants don’t perceive occluded objects complete as
they only perceive what is visible (i.e., fascination with
peek-a-boo)
- infants develop the ability to track briefly occluded
moving objs around 3-5 months
II.g. Depth Perception – most infants would not coral
out on glass especially at a height, choosing to remain
on the shallow side where it is perceived as safe
III. Other Senses
III.a. Hearing
- cannot hear soft sounds, stimulus must be louder
- less sensitive to pitch of a sound
- 6 months – more proficient at localizing sounds or
detecting their origins
III.b. Touch and Pain
- newborns respond to touch
- regular gently tactile stimulation prenatally may have
positive developmental outcomes (i.e., massaging baby
bump, cradling pregnant belly underneath)
- newborns can feel pain
III.c. Smell
- newborns can differentiate odor
- expression on faces to indicated whether they like the
smell or not
III.d. Taste
- sensitive to taste present even before birth
- newborns taste prenatally thru amniotic fluid and in
breast milk after birth
IV. Intermodal Perception – ability to relate and
integrate info from 2 or more sensory modalities (i.e.,
vision and hearing)
V. Nature, Nurture, & Perceptual Development
- Gibsons’ Ecological View infant perception is what
information is available in the environment and how
infants learn to generate, differentiate, and discriminate
the information.
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