DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Heredity – inherited traits from biological parents.

CHAPTER 1: THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Environment – physical and social influence.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Maturation – sequences of physical and behavioral

patterns.
Formal Study of Human Development – the scientific
study of how humans develop. Context of Development
1. Family
Development is: - a group consisting of parents and children living
1. Systematic together in a household
2. Adaptive - “The family as a basic social institution, is the single
3. Lifelong (i.e. Life-span Development) and most important source of security,
belongingness, emotional and economic growth of
Four Goals of Developmental Psychology its members.” – DSWD
1. Describe - great changes occur over time and place to
2. Explain place
3. Predict - affects the development of an individual whether
4. Modify it is physical, cognitive, or psychosocial

Domains of Development (Change and Stability)  Nuclear Family

1. Physical Development – body, brain, senses, - is a household unit consisting of one or two
motor skills, and health. parents and their children, whether biological,
adopted, or stepchildren.
2. Cognitive Development – learning, memory, - two generations: parents and children
moral reasoning, language, thinking, and creativity.  Economic unit, history in farming
 Dominant in western societies
3. Psychosocial Development – personality,  Increasing numbers of:
emotional life, and relationships.  working parents  stepchildren
 gay/lesbian homes  single parents
Periods of the Life Span: A Social Construction
Based on subjective perceptions or assumptions.  Extended Family
- a multigenerational kinship
Prenatal Period Conception to Birth - includes grandparents, cousins, aunts/uncles,
Infancy and Toddlerhood Birth to 3 years and more
Early Childhood 3 to 6 years - social roles are flexible
Middle Childhood 6 to 11 years - historically common in Asian, African, and Latin
Adolescence 11 to 20 years American countries
Young Adulthood 20 to 40 years - becoming less typical
Middle Adulthood 40 to 65 years
Late Adulthood 65 years and over 2. Socioeconomic Status (SES)
- includes income, education, and assumption.
 Poor children are more likely to:
INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT  have emotional and behavior problems
 not reach cognitive potential
Individuals vary in rate and timing of development  have poorer school performance
due to:

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  Low SES and Related Risk Factors
 Poverty – related risk that increase chance of
negative outcomes include:
 living in neighbourhoods with high
unemployment
 lack of social support (less likely in high-
unemployment neighbourhoods)
3. Culture
- that complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other
capabilities, and habits acquired by mas as a new
member of society.
- a way of life
- learned behavior, passed on members of a social
group
- includes:
 customs  artwork
 traditions  practices
4. Race and Ethnicity
 Ethnic Group
- a shared identity
- united by ancestry, religion, or origin
- contributes to shared attitudes and beliefs
 Race
- a socially constructed term
- scholars have no real consensus on definition
- categories “fluid” – shaped by society and
politics
 Ethnic Gloss – overgeneralization that obscures
cultural differences with a group. (e.g. “Black”
or “Hispanic”)
5. Historical Context
- unique time in which people live and grow up
- experiences tied to time and place (i.e. Great
Depression, WWII, The 60’s)
NORMATIVE AND NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES
1. Age-Graded Normative Influences – similar for an
age group.
 Maturational – fixed in time (Ex. Puberty,
Menopause)
 Social – timing is flexible (Ex. Marriage,
Parenthood)
2. Normative History-Graded Influences – events
that shape attitudes of a historical generation.
 Historical Generation – a group that
experiences an event at a formative time.
 Cohort – group born around the same time.
** A historical generation can have many
cohorts. **
3. Non-Normative Influences – unusual events
affecting individual lives.
 Typical events at atypical times (Ex. Puberty
at age 20, marriage in teens)
 Atypical events (Ex. Birth defect, winning the
lottery)
Timing of Influences
1. Imprinting
- instinctively following first moving object seen after
birth; usually mother
- Konrad Lorenz and his ducklings
- indicates predisposition or readiness to learn
2. Critical Period – specific time when an event (or
its absence) has specific impact on development.
3. Sensitive Period – development timing when child
is particularly responsive to certain experiences.
4. Plasticity of Development
- modifiability of performance
- plasticity last through life-span, but has limits
CHAPTER 2: THEORY AND RESEARCH
Theory
- a set of logically related concepts that seek to
describe and explain behavior and to predict what
kinds of behavior might occur under specific
conditions.
- provides groundwork for hypotheses
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Hypotheses – tentative explanations that can be Attachment to
Phallic 3 to 6 years
tested by further research. parents
6 years to
Latency Socialization
Theories of Development Puberty
1. Passive (Mechanistic Model) Puberty to Mature adult
Genital
- Locke: Tabula Rasa (children are blank slates on Adult sexuality
which society writes)
- people are machines reacting to environment
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
2. Active (Organismic Model) Psychosocial Development
- Rousseau: “noble savages” - the socially and culturally influenced process of
- children set their own development in motion development of the ego or self.
- people initiate events, don’t just react - eight stages
- Crisis: Major psychological theme that is
particularly important at that time and will remain
3. Continuous (Mechanistic Theory) on issue to some degree throughout the rest of life
- focus on quantitative change - “Neo-Freudian”
- same processes are involved - emphasized influence of society
- Ex. Ramp - development is lifelong, not just during childhood
- each of eight stages of development involves a
4. Discontinuous (Organismic Theory) “crisis”
- focus on qualitative change - crisis resolution gains a “virtue”
- different processes involved
- Ex. Stairs
LEARNING
Five Major Theoretical Perspectives
1. Psychoanalytic Learning Perspective
2. Learning - view of development that holds that changes in
3. Cognitive behavior
4. Contextual - results from experience or adaptation to the
5. Evolutionary/Socio-biological environment

Learning – long-lasting change in behavior, based

PSYCHOANALYTIC in experience/adaptation to the environment.

Freudian Parts of Personality Behaviorism

1. Id – pleasure principle - learning theory that emphasizes the predictable
2. Ego – reality principle role of environment in causing observable behavior
3. Superego – follows rule of society, morality - we respond based on whether the situation is:
principle  painful or threatening
 pleasurable
Freudian Psychosexual Stages
Stage Age Unconscious Conflict Associative Learning – the formation of a mental
Birth to 15 link between two events.
Oral Sucking and feeding
months
12-18 months Classical Conditioning – learning based on
Anal Potty training
to 3 years association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily

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elicit a response with another stimulus that does
elicit the response.
Operant Conditioning
- individual learns the consequences of “operating”
on the environment
- learned relationship between behavior and its
consequences
- learning based on reinforcement or punishment
Reinforcement
- a stimulus that encourages repetition of a desired
behavior
- increases likelihood of behavior reoccurring
 Positive – giving a reward (Ex. Candy for
finishing a task)
 Negative – removing something aversive (Ex.
No chores for getting an A+ on homework)
Punishment
- stimulus that discourages the repetition of a
behavior
- decreases likelihood of behavior reoccurring
 Positive – adding something aversive (Ex.
Getting scolded)
 Negative – removing something pleasant (Ex.
Taking away car keys)
**B.F. Skinner formulated original ideas by working
with animals, then applied them to humans.**
Extinguish – term referring to the return of a
behavior to its original, or baseline level after
removal of reinforcement.
Behavior Modification – also called “behavior
therapy”, is the use of conditioning to gradually
change behavior.
Social Learning Theory
- theory that behaviors are learned by observing
and imitating models
- also called “Social Cognitive Theory”
Albert Bandura
- development is “bidirectional”
Reciprocal Determinism – person acts on world as
the world acts on the person.
Observational Learning/Modelling – children
choose models to imitate.
Social Cognitive Theory – Bandura’s newest version
of Social Learning Theory in which the emphasis on
cognitive response to perceptions is increased.
Self-efficacy – a confidence that a person has the
characteristics needed to succeed.
Organization – the tendency to create increasing
complex cognitive structures (schemes).
Schemes – organized patterns of behavior that a
person uses to act and think about a situation.
Adaptation – how children handle new information
in light of what they already know.
COGNITIVE
Interrelated Processes
1. Organization
2. Adaptation
3. Equilibration
Piagetian Cognitive Growth: Adaptation
- how children handle familiar information
- two processes:
 Assimilation
- part of adaptation, taking in new
information and incorporating into existing
cognitive structures
 Accommodation
- part of adaptation, changing one’s
cognitive structures to include new
information
Equilibration – the constant striving for a stable
balance in the shift from assimilation to
accommodation.
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Cognitive Stages - levels of reasoning: pre-conventional,
Stage Age Description conventional, post-conventional
Infant gradually - 6 stages
becomes able to
organize activities in Children obey because
Birth to 2
Sensorimotor relation to the Stage 1 adults tell them to obey.
years
environment Heteronomous People base their moral
through sensory and Morality decisions on fear of
motor activity. Level punishment.
Development of 1 Individuals pursue their
Stage 2
representational own interests but let
Individualism,
system and symbols others do the same.
Purpose, and,
to represent What is right involves
Language
people, places, and equal exchange.
Pre- 2 to 7
events. Language Stage 3
operational years
and imaginative Mutual
play are important Interpersonal Individuals value trust,
manifestation of this Expectations, caring, and loyalty to
stage. Thinking is still Relationship others as a basis for
not logical. and moral judgments.
Level
Child can solve Interpersonal
2
Concrete 7 to 11 problems logically Conformity
Operations years but cannot think Moral judgments are
abstractly. Stage 4 based on
Person can think Social System understanding and the
11 years abstractly, deal with Morality social order, law, justice,
Formal
to hypothetical and duty.
Operation
Adulthood situations and think Stage 5
about possibilities. Social Individuals reason that
Contract or values, rights, and
Sociocultural Theory Utility and principles undergird or
- Lev Vygotsky Individual transcend the law.
Level
- stresses children’s active interaction with social Rights
3
environments The person has
Stage 6
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – the gap developed moral
Universal
between what children are already able to do judgments that are
Ethical
and what they are not quite ready to based on universal
Principles
accomplish by themselves. human rights.

 Scaffolding – the temporary support that

parents, teachers, or others, give a child in CONTEXTUAL
doing a task until the child can do it alone.
Contextual Approach
Kohlberg’s Theory 1. Development can be understand only in its social
- Lawrence Kohlberg contexts.
- moral reasoning and occurs in stages 2. Urie Bronfenbrenner

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3. Describes range of interacting influences that Random Selection – each person in population has
affect development. an equal chance of being in sample
4. Identifies contexts that stifle or promote growth.
(Ex. Home, classroom, neighbourhood) Data Collection: Self-Reports
1. Diaries – recording daily activities
Bronfenbrenner’s Five Contextual Systems 2. Interviews
1. Microsystem – the developing person, age, - ask questions about attitudes, opinions, or
health, abilities, temperament. behavior
2. Mesosystem – interaction of any two - can be open-ended or a questionnaire
microsystem.
3. Exosystem – religious hierarchy 3. People Watching
4. Macrosystem – dominant beliefs and ideologies 4. Laboratory Observation
5. Chronosystem – patterning of environmental
events and transitions over the life course; impact of Behavioral and Performance Measures
socio-historical conditions and life events. 1. Objective Measures
- mechanical and electronic devices
Dimension of Time – changing personal and socio- - assessing skills, knowledge, and abilities
historical conditions over the life course.  heart rate
 brain activity
 intelligence tests
RESEARCH METHODS
2. Meaningful Measures
1. Quantitative Research  Reliable – results are consistent from the time.
- objectively measurable data  Valid – the test actually measures what it claims
 standardized tests to measure.
 physiological changes
Research Design
2. Qualitative Research Type Characteristics Pros Cons
- non-numerical data Case Study Study of Flexibility Reduced
 feeling individuals generalizability
 beliefs Ethnographic Study of Universality Observer bias
cultures of
phenomena
Scientific Method
Correlational Positive or Enables Cannot
1. Quantitative Research
negative prediction establish
 Identify problem relationship cause and
 Formulate hypotheses effect
 Collect data Experimental Controlled Establishes Reduced
 Analyze data procedures cause and generalizability
 Form conclusions effect
 Share findings
1. Case Studies
Sampling - study of an individual
Sample - offers useful in-depth information
- a smaller group within the population - shortcomings
- studying the entire population is inefficient  not generalizable
 no to test conclusions

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2. Ethnographic Studies  Right to privacy
3. Correlational Studies  Confidentiality

4. Experiments - research are guided by:

a.) Groups:  Beneficence
 Experimental – people who are exposed to  Respect
the treatment  Justice
 Control – similar to the experimental group but
does not receive the treatment. - researchers should be sensitive to participants’
b.) Variables: developmental needs and cultural issues and
 Independent – experimenter has direct control values.
over.
CHAPTER 3: FORMING A NEW LIFE
 Dependent – something that may or may not
change as a result of changes in independent CONCEIVING NEW LIFE
variable.
Genetic Testing and Engineering
Genomics – the study of functions and interactions
c.) Random Assignment
of various genes.
d.) Location
- control over cause and effect varies depending
Genetic Testing
on location
 Should children be tested?
 Laboratory – most control
 Would you want to know if you were predisposed
 Field – controlled (Ex. Everyday settings)
for a particular disease?
 Natural – least control
 Are there potential ethical issues?

Research Designs
Fertilization
1. Cross-sectional – people assessed at one point in
- union of sperm and ovum to produce a single-
time.
celled zygote
- also called conception
2. Longitudinal – same people studies more than
once.
Two Types of Multiple Births
1. Monozygotic (MZ)
3. Sequential
- one egg and one sperm
- complex combination of cross-sectional and
- identical twins
longitudinal
- share 100% of genes
- adds more data than either design alone
- shared placenta
- separate amniotic sacs

ETHICS OF RESEARCH
2. Dizygotic (DZ)
- two eggs and two sperm
Ethics
- more common
- balancing benefits of research against mental
- fraternal twins
and physical risks to participants
- share 50% of genes – just like non-twin siblings
- considerations:
- separate placenta
 Right to informed consent
- separate amniotic sacs
 Avoidance of deception

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Rise in Multiple Birth Rate Trait Inheritance
Factors: Alleles
 Rising trend toward delaying child birth  Homozygous – identical copies of gene
 Increasing use of fertility drugs  Heterozygous – non-identical copies of gene
 Related risks
 Pregnancy complications Gene Expression
1. Genotype
- actual genetic make-up or allele combinations
MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY - Ex. tongue curling ability, DD or Dd

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 2. Phenotype

- is the genetic material in all living cells - observable expression of genetic make-up
- chemicals that carries inherited - product of the genotype
- consists of four chemical units called bases

Bases – are the letters of the DNA alphabet. Epigenesis

- epigenetic framework or chemical molecules that
A - Adenine alter the way a cell “reads” the gene’s DNA
T - Thymine - epigenetic markers may contribute to cancer,
C - Cytosine diabetes, or heart disease
G - Guanine - epigenetic markers may change due to
environmental factors
Adenine pairs with Thymine - imprinting
Cytosine pairs with Guanine
Inherited Defects
**There are 3 billion base pairs in human DNA.**  Dominant abnormal gene
 Recessive abnormal gene
Chromosomes – threadlike structures in the nuclei of  Incomplete: Partial Dominance
cell containing genetic material.  Trait is not fully expressed
 Sickle-cell anaemia – only some parts of the
Genes – segments of DNA located in definite disease are expressed.
positions on particular chromosomes.
Sex-Linked Defects
Determination of Sex - disorders linked to genes on sex chromosomes
Autosomes – 22 pairs not related to sexual  Red/green color blindness, haemophilia
expression. - affects males and females differently
 Carrier – individual unaffected by disorder but
Sex Chromosomes – 1 pair determining sex passes on gene to offspring.

XX – female Chromosomal Abnormalities

XY – male - errors in cell division
- result in missing or extra chromosomes
Dominant and Recessive Inheritance - can occur in sex chromosomes or autosomes
Dominant – heterozygosity, with a dominant allele.

Recessive – homozygosity, with no dominant allele.

8
Down Syndrome Embryonic Stage Characteristics
Trisomy 21 1. Body structures, internal organs
- extra 21st chromosome 2. Three layers of the embryo develop:
- most common autosomal disorder  Ectoderm – hair, outer layer of the skin and the
- responsible for 40% nervous system
 Mesoderm – muscles, bones, and circulatory
Genetic Counseling system
1. Helps prospective parents assess risks of bearing a  Endoderm – lungs and digestive system
child with a genetic defect. 3. The amniotic sac fills with fluid and the umbilical
2. Karyotype chart shows chromosomal cord connects embryo to the placenta.
abnormalities. 4. Umbilical cord’s blood vessels join placenta to
the embryo.
NATURE AND NURTURE: INFLUENCES OF HEREDITY 5. Risk of spontaneous abortion or miscarriage.
AND ENVIRONMENT
Amniotic Fluid – cushions the embryo and maintains
Measuring Heritability a constant temperature.
Family Studies – the degree to which biological
relatives share traits. Blood Vessels – allows nutrients, oxygen, vitamins
and waste products to be exchanged between
Adoption Studies – the degree to which adopted mother and embryo.
children resemble biological relatives or adopted
family members. Growth Principle
1. Cephalocaudal Principle – structures nearest the
Twin Studies head develop first.
 Concordance – the degree to which MZ and DZ
twins resemble each other. 2. Proximodistal Principle – structures nearest the
center of the body develop first.
Traits Influences by Heredity and Environment
1. Obesity Fetal Stage Characteristics
2. Intelligence, school achievement 1. The final and longest phase of prenatal
3. Personality development.
4. Schizophrenia 2. Organs and body become more complex.
3. “Finishing touches” – toenails, eyelids
4. Appearance of bone (cartilage begins to turn to
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT bone)
5. Beginning of the period: less than an ounce.
Stages of Prenatal Development 6. Last 5 months of pregnancy: additional 7 or 8
1. Germinal – conception to 2 weeks pounds before birth.
2. Embryonic – 3 to 8 weeks
3. Fetal – 9 weeks to birth
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
Gestation – period from germinal to fetal (38 weeks)
Maternal Factors
Germinal Stage Characteristics Teratogen – birth defect producing agent
Placenta – structure to which nutrients and wastes
are exchanged between the mother and the 1. Nutrition and maternal weight
developing child. 2. Drug and alcohol intake

9
3. Nicotine 2. Modern Generation
4. Caffeine - dramatic reductions in death due to:
5. Maternal Illnesses (Ex. Sexually transmitted diseases  antibiotics
like HIV/AIDS)  pre-natal care
6. Maternal age and stress
“Humanizing” Childbirth: A Social Trend
Paternal Factors - home births have brought back intimacy of event
**May affect quality of sperm: - birthing centers and hospitals
 Exposure to lead  soft lights
 Marijuana or tobacco smoke  father or partners as coach
 Alcohol or radiation  baby stays in room
 Pesticides
 Paternal Age
BIRTH PROCESS

MONITORING PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Parturition

- brings on labor through a series of uterine, cervical,
Techniques and other changes
1. Ultrasound  two weeks before delivery
2. Amniocentesis  uterine contractions
3. Embryoscopy  cervix becomes flexible
4. Maternal Blood Test  stimulated by rising estrogen levels

Stages of Vaginal Childbirth

Prenatal Care Stage 1: Dilation of the Cervix
- includes: - longest typically 12-14 hours for first child, cervix
 education dilates
 social services - first, contractions are weak and irregular, gradually
 nutritional services they become stronger and rhythmic enlarging to
approximately 10 centimeters or 4 inches
Pre-Conception Care
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Stage 2: Descent and Emergence of the Baby
recommendations include: - baby passes through the cervix and enters the
 physical examination vagina
 vaccinations - mother helps pushing the baby along by
 risk screening contracting muscles in her abdomen
 counseling - crowing takes place
- uterine contractions increase in strength and the
infant is delivered
CHAPTER 4: BIRTH AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
DURING THE FIRST THREE YEARS Stage 3: Expulsion of the Placenta – lasts 10-60
minutes; the mother pushes a few more times to
CHILDBIRTH AND CULTURE expel the placenta.

Generations of Childbirth Customs Cesarean Delivery

1. Pre-20th Century
- birthing was a modest “female only” ritual
- use of midwives was predominant
- death rates high for mother and baby
- 1 out of 4 babies died in first year
- surgically removing baby from uterus through
abdomen
- almost 30% of all U.S. births
- often used when labor progresses slowly

10
- changing preferences among women and some 7. Post-mature – 42 weeks or more
physicians 8. Stillbirth – death of fetus at or after 20th week of
- common with: gestation.
 first and/or large babies
 older moms Long-Term Outcomes of Low Birth Weight
 mother with previous cesarean sections Greater risk of:
 Neurological and cognitive impairment
Non-Medicated Delivery  Lower academic achievement
1. Natural Childbirth – mother receives training in  Social, behavioural, and attention problems
fitness, breathing, and relaxation.
Overcoming Birth Complications
2. Traditional Cultures – use of doula which is an 1. Higher family socio-economic status (SES)
experienced helper who provides emotional support 2. Quality early environment
to mother 3. Educational day care
4. Educating parents about children’s health
3. Prepared Childbirth
- uses instruction, breathing exercise, and social
support to induce controlled physical response to THE NEWBORN BABY
uterine contractions and reduce fear and pain.
 Lamaze method Size and Appearance
 LeBoyer method 1. Average neonate is 20 in. long and has a weight
 submersion in a soothing pool of water of 7.5 pounds
2. Fontanels – soft plates of head
Medicated Delivery 3. Lanugo – fuzzy prenatal hair
 Local or regional anaesthesia which blocks pain 4. Vernix Caseosa – oily protection against infection
receptors in brain. 5. Pinkish cast thin skin
 Relaxing analgesic.
 Approximately 60% of women choose pain relief Body Systems
during labor (U.S.) 1. Blood circulation, respiration, nourishment,
elimination of waste and temperature regulation.
2. Breathing (hypoxia or anoxia can lead to birth
BIRTH COMPLICATIONS trauma)
3. Meconium – stringy waste in fetal intestinal tract
1. Prolapsed umbilical cord can disrupt the flow of 4. Neonatal Jaundice
blood.  yellowing of skin and eyeballs
 Hypnoxia – oxygen deficiency reaching tissues  caused by immaturity of the liver
 Anoxia – absence or severe deficiency of  half of all babies experience
oxygen reaching tissues  usually baby doesn’t need treatment

2. Premature or preterm
3. Small for date MEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
 Low Birth Weight – 2,500 grams (5.5 lbs or less)
 Very Low Birth Weight – less than 1,500 grams (3.3 1. Apgar Scale
lbs) - named after its developer Dr. Virginia Apgar
 Extremely Low Birth Weight – less than 1,000
grams (2.2 lbs) Sign 0 1 2
Blue,
Appearance Body pink Entirely pink
4. Cephalopelvic Disproportion pale
5. Irregular Position Pulse Absent Slow <100 Rapid
6. Preeclampsia – rise of blood pressure of mother.

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 Coughing, Crying
Grimace None Grimace sneezing, - first venture into interpersonal communication
crying - newborns spend 2-3 hours per day crying
Activity Limp Weak Strong
Irregular, Good, a. Basic Cry – starts softly and gradually become
Respiration Absent
Slow crying more intense; it usually occurs when a baby is
hungry or tired.
2. Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale b. Mad Cry – more intense version of a basic cry.
- parents, health care providers and researchers c. Pain Cry – sudden, long burst of crying followed
assess neonates’ responsiveness to their physical and by a long pause and gasping.
social environment
- strengths and possible vulnerabilities in neurological
functioning and predict future development EARLY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
- motor organization, reflexes, state changes,
attention and interactive capacities, indications of Principles of Development
CNS. 1. Cephalocaudal Principle (Top down)
- newborn babies head is proportionally large
3. Neonatal Screening Tests - sensory and motor development; infants learn to
- help detect correctable disorders use the upper parts of the body before the lower
 PKU (phenylketonuria) parts
 Galactosemic
 Hypothyroidism 2. Proximodistal Principle (Inner to outer)
- growth and motor development proceed from the
center of the body outward
STATES OF AROUSAL

State Eyes Breathing Movement NUTRITION

Regular Regular,
Closed None
Sleep slow Bottle Feeding
Irregular
Closed Irregular Twitching - formula should not be iron-fortified
Sleep
- necessary for women with infectious illnesses
Open or Some
Drowsiness Irregular - does not reduce emotional bonding between
closed activity
mother and baby
Alert
Open Even Quiet
inactivity
Wakeful Other Nutritional Concerns
Much 1. Solid food introduced half of first year
and Open Irregular
activity 2. Malnutrition
Crying
3. Overweight
Sleeping
- newborn sleeps 16-18 hours daily
- typically, they got through a cycle of wakefulness THE BRAIN AND REFLEX BEHAVIOR
and sleep about 4 months
 3 to 4 months – babies sleep for 5 to 6 hours Brain Cells
straight 1. Neurons – send and receive information
 6 months – many are sleeping for 10 to 12 hours 2. Glial – nourish and protect neurons
at night 3. Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers
- half of newborns’ sleep is irregular or rapid eye 4. Myelination – fatty substance helps send faster
movement (REM) sleep signals

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Reflexes MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
1. Primitive Reflexes – sucking, rooting for the nipple,
and the Moro reflex Milestones of Motor Development
Age 90% of Children
Skill
2. Postural Reflexes Master
- reactions to changes in position or balance Rolling over 5.4 months
- first 2 to 4 months Grasping rattle 3.9 months
Standing alone 13.7 months
3. Locomotor Reflexes Walking well 14.9 months
- walking and swimming reflexes Building tower of cubes 20.6 months
- resemble voluntary movements that do not appear Copying circle 4 years
until months after the reflexes have disappeared

Early Human Reflexes Theory of Perception

1. Rooting Walk and Gibson: The Visual Cliff
2. Babkin - 6-month-old babies would approach “ledge”, but
3. Babinski avoided “drop”
4. Grasp - demonstrated depth perception
5. Moro
6. Swimming
7. Sucking CHAPTER 5: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT DURING THE
8. Tonic Neck FIRST THREE YEARS

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
EARLY SENSORY CAPACITIES
Six Approaches of Cognitive Development
1. Touch 1. Behavior Approach
- first sense to develop - babies are born with the ability to learn
- rooting reflex  Classical conditioning
- able to experience pain at birth  Operant conditioning
 Reinforcement and punishment
2. Smell and Taste
- begins to develop in womb  Infant Memory
- newborns prefer sweet tastes  Infantile Amnesia – inability to remember
- fluids and odors may be transmitted through events prior to age 3 years.
amniotic fluid
2. Psychometric Approach
3. Hearing - IQ tests
- functional before birth - developmental tests
- 3-day-olds can tell new speechsounds from ones
they’ve already heard 3. Piagetian Approach
- 1 month, babies distinguish sounds as “ba” and - Piagetian Sensorimotor Stage
“pa” Substage Age in Description
Months
4. Sight Reflexes Up to 1 Gain control
over reflexes
- the sense least developed at birth
Primary 1 to 4 Repeat
- 20/20 vision
Circular pleasurable
chance
behaviors
(thumb sucking)

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 Secondary 4 to 8 Repeat 2. Cooing – repeating vowel sounds "ahhh" (6 to 8
Circular interesting weeks)
actions
Coordinate 8 to 12 Purposeful and 3. Babbling – repeating consonant sounds "ma-ma-
Sceondary deliberate ma" (6 to 10 months)
Circular behavior
Tertiary 12 to 18 Curiosity and Recognizing Language Sounds
experimentations
1. Precedes language ability
Mental 18 to 24 Symbolic
2. Fetuses' heart rates slow when they hear familiar
Combinations thought; insight
nursery rhymes
3. By 6 months, babies learn basic sounds
Object Permanence
(phonemes) of their native language
- realizing that an object exists even when out of
sight
Gestures
- dynamics systems theory
1. Conventional Social – waving bye-bye; nodding
- not about what babies know, but about what they
head to mean "yes"
do and why
2. Representational – holding arms up means "pick
me up"
4. Information-Processing Approach
3. Symbolic – blowing means "hot"
 Habituation – a type of learbing in which
familiarity is indicated by reduced response.
**Learning gestures helps babies learn to talk.**
 Dishabituation – increase in responsiveness
First Words
after presentation with a new stimulus.
1. Linguistic Speech
- verbal expression that conveys meaning
5. Cognitive-Neuroscience Approach
- around 10 to 14 months of age
- types of memory:
a. Explicit – conscious or intentional (facts, names,
2. Holophrase
and events)
- simple syllables that have complete meanings
- "da" could mean "where is daddy?"
b. Implicit – unconscious recall (habits and skills ->
procedural memory)
3. "Naming explosion" – occurs at 16 to 24 months.
c. Working – short-term storage of active
First Sentences
information
1. Telegraphic Speech
- 2 to 3 words expressing one idea
6. Social-Contextual Approach
- "No do" means "Do not do that"

2. Syntax – the fundamental rules for putting

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
sentences together in their language.
Language – a communication system based on
Early Speech Characteristics
word, grammar, and cognitive development.
1. Understanding of grammar precedes uses of it.
2. Underextension of word meanings
Literacy - the ability to read and write.
3. Overextension of word meanings
4. Overregularizing of rules
Early Vocalization
1. Crying – newborns
Influences on Early Language Development
Maturation of the Brain – develops through social
interaction with parents and caregivers.

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Language is a Social Act 2. Self-consciousness
1. Prelinguistic Period – adults repeat sounds baby - depends in having self-awareness
makes - embarassment and empathy
2. Vocabulary Development – parents holds ball
while saying "This is a ball." Empathy
3. Bilingual - ability to put oneself in another's places
 code mixing - requires social cognition (understanding that
 code switching others' have thoughts and feelings)
- ideas about others' feeling feelings and used to
Child-Directed Speech gauge behavior
1. Parentese
- baby talk Egocentrism – absence of empathy.
- simplified words
- exaggerated vowel sounds
- may help children learn native tongue faster BRAIN GROWTH AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Four major shifts:

CHAPTER 6: PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DURING 1. Cerebral Cortex (wrinkled part of the brain)
THE FIRST THREE YEARS becomes functional
2. Frontal lobe interacts with the limbic system
FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 3. Infant Develops self-awareness and
consciousness
Emotions 4. Hormonal changes coincide with evaluative
Crying emotions
- first sign of emotion
- it is obvious when newborns are upset
- piercing cries, flailing of limbs, stiff body TEMPERAMENT
- types of cries: hunger, angry, pain, frustration
Temperament
During the First Month - biological predisposition of reactivity
1. Baby becomes quiet at: - highly heritable and stable
 sound of human voice - generally, how mellow are you from situation to
 being picked up situation

2. Baby smiles when gently moved Three Temperaments

1. Easy
Smiling and Laughing - generally happy
1. Involuntary Smile - responds well to change and novelty
- appear at birth
- result of subcortical brain activity 2. Slow to warm-up
- generally mild reaction
2. Waking smile after one month - hesitant about new experiences
- considered more social
- elicited through gentle jiggling, tickling, or kissing 3. Difficult
- irritable
Self-Emotions - intense emotional responses
1. Self-awareness – a realization that one's
existence is separate from others. Goodness of Fit
- adjustment is easiest when the child's
temperament matches the situation

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- includes physical, social, and cultural
Social Experience
1. The Mother's Role by Harry Harlow
- research with thesus monkeys
- newborn placed with "foster mother"
 cloth mother offered no food
 wire mother provided food
Long Term Effects of Attachments
1. More securely attached children develop good
relationships with others
2. Larger vocabularies
3. Higher levels of curiosity and self-confidence
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES IN TODDLERHOOD

- babies prefer the cloth mother 1. Emergence of Self-Concept

- the inportance of contact comfort  Self-concept – the image of ourselves;
personal agency
 Self-efficacy
GENDER DIFFERENCES  Self-awareness – knowledge of the self as a
distinct being
Gender – what it means to be male or female.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame
Gender Typing  Autonomy
- socialization by which children learn gender roles - a shift from external control to self-control
- parents are important in socialization - emerges from trust and self-awareness
- the terrible 2 years olds

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES IN INFANCY  Shame and Doubt – help toddler recognize

need for limits
1. Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust
- newborns and infants develop a sense of reliability Developing Self-Regulation
of people and objects - having control over own behavior
- Erikson Stage 1: Basic Trust - conforming with caregiver's standards
 sensitive, responsive, and consistent care - depend on attentional processes
- ability to monitor negative emotions
2. Attachment
- reciprocal and enduring bond between child and ORIGINS OF CONSCIENCE
caregiver
- studied by Mary Ainsworth Conscience
 "strange situation" experiments - emotional discomfort about doing something
wrong
Attahment in Strange Situation - the ability to refrain from doing something wrong
Attachment Child's Behavior - refraining because they believeit is the right thing to
Plays freely when mother is do (not just self-regulation
near
Secure
Happy when mother Committed Compliance
returns - willingly follows orders without lapses
Hovers around mother - shows internalization of household rules
Insecure
Angry when mother returns
Inconsistent and erratic Situational Compliance – follows orders with
Disorganized Seems overwhelmed by
prompting and reminders.
stress

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 CONTACT WITH OTHER CHILDREN  Depression

1. Sociability with Siblings Community and Cultural Factors in Child Abuse

- becomes a vehicle for understanding social
relationships outside the home
- constructive conflict helps children with empathy
2. Sociability with Non-Siblings
- babies who spend more time with other babies ten
to be more sociable
- toddlers can learn by imitating each other
EFFECTS OF PARENTAL EMPLOYMENT
**Abuse is more likely if:
1. Criminal activity is rampant in community
2. There are few community programs
3. Violent crime is frequent in that country
Abuse-Prevention Programs
1. Teach parenting skills
2. Offer "respite homes" and "relief parents"
3. Investigate reports of maltreatment
4. Provide shelters and therapy
5. Facilitate foster care

**National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) found Long Term Effects of Maltreatment
little or no effect of maternal employment on 1. 1/3 of adults abused as children victimized their
children's: own children.
 Compliance 2. Sexually abused children grow up with:
 Behavior problem  lower self-esteem
 Self-esteem  greater risk of depression and anxiety
 Cognitive development  risk of precocious sexual behavior
 Academic Achievement

MALTREATMENT
References:
Types of Child Abuse Papalia, D. (2015), Experience Human Development.
1. Physical Nilo, G.N. (2019), Lecture in Developmental
2. Neglect Psychology.
3. Sexual Torres, K.M. (2019), Lecture in Developmental
4. Emotional Maltreatment Psychology.
- causes behavioral, cognitive or mental disorders Pineda, B.Z. (2019), Lecture in Developmental
- may include rejection Psychology.

Shaken Baby Syndrome

- a form of maltreatment of children under 2 years of
age
- 20% of babies with head trauma die within a few Compiled by: Bryle Zyver R. Pineda | @brylezyver
days
- usually a result of caregiver frustration and stress

Traits of Abusive and Neglectful Families

1. Perpetrator is usually the mother
2. Aggravated by:
 Marital problems
 Stressful events
 Lack of parental education
 Poverty
 Alcoholism

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