DISCIPLINE AND IDEAS IN APPLIED
The basis for such study is
SOCIAL SCIENCES
CHAPTER 1 Defining Social Sciences and
Applied Social Sciences
Social Sciences – any discipline o branch of science
that deals with human behavior in its social and
cultural aspects. The social sciences include cultural
(or social) anthropology, sociology, social
psychology, political science, and economics. The
social sciences are vast filled of scientific studies
that investigate human societies and the different
forces that work within them. This field examines
how people interact and develop culture.
Branches of Social Sciences
1. Economics – A social science mainly
related to the study and analysis of the
production, distribution and consumption of
goods and services.
2. 2. PoliticalScience – The social science that
deals with the study of government systems,
the analysis of political activities, political
thoughts and political behavior.
3. Geography – Comes from the Greek and
means literally, “description of the Earth”. It
is the field of social science, in charge of the
study of the lands, the characteristics, the
inhabitants and the phenomena of the Earth.
4. Psychology – The science that studies and
analyzes the individual’s behavior and
mental processes, encompassing all aspects
of conscious and unconscious experience, as
well as thinking.
5. Sociology– The study of social behavior or
society. Including its origins, development,
organization, networks, and institutions,
systematic study of people’s behavior in
groups. It is derived from the latin word
“socio” which means “people together” and
Greek word “logos” which means “the study
of”.
6. Anthropology – The scientific study of
humans and their cultures in the past and
present time.
based on the social, biological sciences and
humanities.
7. Demography – The statistical study of
populations, fundamentally of humans. It is
dedicated to analyzing any type of dynamic
population that changes over time or space.
8. History – An umbrella term that refers to
past events, as well as to memory,
discovery, collection, organization,
presentation and interpretation of
information about these events, A systematic
study of human past events in order to
understand the meaning, dynamics, and
relationship of the causes and effects of
events in the development of societies.
Applied social sciences – Branch of study that
applies the different concepts, theoretical models,
and theories of the social science discipline to help
understand society and the different problems and
issues.
1. Counseling – The service offered to the
individual who is suffering from a
problem and needs professional help to
overcome it. Counseling therefore is a
more specialized service requiring
training in personality development and
handling exceptional group of
individuals. Counseling involves two
individuals one seeking help and the
other a professionally trained person
helped solved problems to orient and
direct him towards a goal.
2. Social Work –An academic discipline
and profession that concerns itself with
individuals, families, groups and
communities in an effort to enhance
social functioning and overall well-
being. Social functioning refers to the
way in which people perform their social
roles, and the structural institutions that
are provided to sustain them.
 3. Communication Studies – An academic conflict that they must resolve before they go to the
discipline that deals with the processesof next higher stage.
human communication. There are three
types of human communication. There Freud (1905) proposed that psychological
are three types of communication: development in childhood takes place in a series of
verbal, involving listening to a person to fixed psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic,
understand the meaning of a message; latency, and genital.
written, in which a message is read; and Freud believed that life was built round tension and
nonverbal communication involving pleasure. Freud also believed that all tension was
observing a person and inferring due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and
meaning. The discipline encompasses a that all pleasure came from its discharge.
range of topics, from face-to-face
conversation to mass media outlets such
as television broadcasting.
Communication studies in line with
Cultural Studies, also examines how
messages are interpreted through the
political, cultural, economic, semiotic,
hermeneutic, and social dimensions of
their contexts.

PSYCHOLOGY IN A NUTSHELL

Psychology is a universally viewed today as the

Science of Scientific Study of Behavior and Mental
Processes. Psychology came from the Greek words
“Psyche” or Soul and “Logos” or Study.
Psychology is then defined as the “Study of the
Soul”.

By understanding Psychology, you may able to

describe, understand, predict, and control or
modify behavior and mental processes.

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Sigmund Freud, the Father of Psychoanalysis,

believed that all human beings pass through a series
of psychosexual stages. Each stage is dominated by
the development of sensitivity in particular
erogenous or pleasure –giving spot in the body.
More so each stage poses for individuals a unique
 Stage Psychosocial Basic Age
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1 year)
Crisis Virtue
Is the world a safe place or is it full of
unpredictable events and accidents 1 Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0-1½
waiting to happen? Erikson’s first 2 Autonomy vs. Will 1½ -
psychosocial crisis occurs during the Shame 3
first year or so of life (like Freud’s oral 3 Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5
stage of psychosexual development). 4 Industry vs. Competency 5 - 12
The crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust. Inferiority
5 Identity vs. Role Fidelity 12 -
During this stage, the infant is uncertain Confusion 18
about the world in which they live. To 6 Intimacy vs. Love 18 -
resolve these feelings of uncertainty, the Isolation 40
infant looks towards their primary 7 Generativityvs. Care 40 -
caregiver for stability and consistency of Stagnation 65
8 Ego Integrity vs. Wisdom 65+
care.
Despair
If the care the infant receives is versus guilt stage, children assert
consistent, predictable and reliable, they themselves more frequently/
will develop a sense of trust which will
These are particularly lively, rapid-
carry with them to other relationships,
developing years in a child’s life.
and they will be able to feel secure even
According to Bee (1992), It is a “time of
when threatened.
vigor of action and of behaviors that the
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt parents may see as aggressive”.
(2-3 years)
During this period the primary feature
Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the involves the child regularly interacting
second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of with other children at school. Central to
psychosocial development. This stage this stage is play, as it provides children
occurs between the ages of 18 months to with the opportunity to explore their
approximately 3 years. interpersonal skills through initiating
activities.
The child is developing physically and
becoming more mobile, and discovering 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11
that he or she has many skills and years)
abilities, such as putting on clothes and
Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis,
shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills
involving industry vs. inferiority occurs
illustrate the child’s growing sense of
during childhood between the ages of
independence and autonomy.
five and twelve.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (4-5 years)
Children are at the stage where they will
Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of be learning to read and write, to do
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial sums, to do things on their own.
development. During the initiative Teachers begin to take an important role
in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer
group will gain greater significance and
will become a major source of the
child’s self-esteem. The child now feels
the need to win approval by
demonstrating specific competencies
that are valued by society and begin to
develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18
years)
During adolescence, the transition from
childhood to adulthood is most
important. Children are becoming more
independent, and begin to look at the
future in terms of career, relationships,
families, housing, etc. The individual
wants to belong to a society and fit in.
The fifth stage is identity vs. role
confusion, and it occurs during
adolescence, from about 12-18 years.
During this stage, adolescents search for
a sense of self and personal identity,
through an intense exploration of
personal values, beliefs, and goals.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (young
adult)
Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth
stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development. This stage
takes place during young adulthood
between the ages of approximately 18 to
40 yrs.
During this period, the major conflict
centers on forming intimate, loving
relationships with other people.
During this period, we begin to share
ourselves intimately with others. We
explore relationships leading toward
longer-term commitments with someone
other than a family member.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
(middle adulthood)
Generativity versus Stagnation is the
seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson’s
theory of psychosocial development.
This stage takes place during middle
adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs.)
People experience a need to create or
nurture things that will outlast them,
often having mentees or creating
positive changes that will benefit other
people.
We give back to society through raising
our children, being productive at work,
and becoming involved in community
activities and organizations. Through
generativity we develop a sense of being
a part of the bigger picture.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the
world.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (old age)
Ego Integrity versus despair is the eighth
and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage
theory of psychosocial development.
This stage begins at approximately age
65 and ends at death.
As we grow older (65+ yrs.) and become
senior citizens, we tend to slow down
our productivity and explore life as a
retired person.
It is during this time that we contemplate
our accomplishments and can develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life.
 Erikson described ego integrity as “the
acceptance of one’s one and only life
cycle as something that had to be”
(1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of
coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget’s
(1932) theory of moral developmentin principle but
wanted to develop his ideas further.
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell
people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each
case, he presented a choice to be considered, for
example, between the rights of some authority and
the needs of some deserving individual who is being
unfairly treated.
Level 1 – Pre-conventional morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine year-olds
and younger, some over nine), we don’t have a
personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code
is shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is
based on the physical consequences of actions.
 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment
Orientation.
The child/individual is good in order to avoid being
punished. If a person is punished, they must have
done wrong.
 Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange.
At this stage, children recognize that there is not
just one right view that is handed down by the
authorities. Different individuals have different
viewpoints.
Level 2 – Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and
adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards
of valued adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and
reasoning is based on the norms of the group to
which the person belongs.
 Stage 3. Good Interpersonal
Relationships.
The child/individual is good in order to be seen as
being a good person by others. Therefore, answers
relate to the approval of others.
 Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order.
The child/individual becomes aware of the wider
rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the
rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3 – Post-conventional morality
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen
principles, and moral reasoning is based on
individual rights and justice. According to
Kohlberg, this level of moral reasoning is as far as
most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract
thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-
conventional morality). That is to say, most people
take their moral views from those around them and
only a minority think through ethical principles for
themselves.
 Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual
Rights.
The child/individual becomes aware that while
rules/laws might exist for the good of the
greatest number, there are times when they will
work against the interest of particular
individuals.
The issues are not always clear-cut. For
example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of
life is more important than breaking the law
against stealing.
 Stage 6. Universal Principles.

People at this stage have developed their own

set of moral guidelines which may or may not
fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.

E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The

person will be prepared to act to defend these
principles even if it means going against the rest
of society in the process and having to pay the
consequences of disapproval and or
imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people
reached this stage.