The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Why we need to study development JOHN W. SANTROCK

1. to understand the mechanism that produces human DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
behavior
2. to understand our nature and of course to understand
ourselves. are we products of our environment or are we a
reflection of our genes
3. for the parents understanding of the typical infant
child and adolescent development can help them deal with
their offspring
4. and guide them to successful futures 5. for
teachers, can help them teach children reading can also help
them decide when to begin instruction and it can also can
help them identify behaviors and can help them deal with
aggression especially in the classroom and also can help
them apply developmentally appropriate
practices PRENATAL (conception – birth)
-3 phases of Prenatal period
WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? 1. Germinal - this is within the first two weeks of conception
development means change over time more specifically implantation and formation of placenta
development means predictable changes that occur in a 2. Embryonic - is from two weeks to three months or three
structure or function over life span. to eight weeks. there is a formation of vital organs and systems
The 2 Approaches of Human Development 3. Fetal - is from two months to birth or nine weeks up to
1. LIFESPAN birth. the bodily growth that continues movement capability begins
- development is lifelong plastic multidimensional relatively orderly brain cells multiply age of viability.
takes place gradually contextual involves growth
maintenance and
regulation
Development is lifelong
Development is plastic
Development is multidimensional
- Biological, cognitive and socio-emotional
Development is relatively orderly
INFANCY PERIOD (birth-2 years)
- Cephalocaudal and proximodistal
According to Santrock, this is the type of extreme
Development takes place gradually
dependence on adults many psychological activities are just
Development is contextual
beginning such as language development symbolic thought sensory
Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation motor coordination and social learning.
2. TRADITIONAL
- Extensive changes from birth to adolescence
- little to change in adulthood
- Decline in late old age

Aspects of Development
1. Physical Development
2. Psychomotor Development
3. Cognitive Development
EARLY CHILDHOOD
4. Socio-emotional Development This is about 3-5 years old. During this stage wants to be just like
parents so they start to imitate their parents. Vocabulary and
The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks pronunciation continue to expand. during the early childhood and
Concept of Developmental tasks: these are preschool years, young children learn to become more self-
in each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are sufficient develop school readiness skills and such as learning to follow
expected in every individual instruction and identify letters.
- One of the crucial stages of development of individual.
Robert J. Havighurst
defines that developmental task as one that arises at a
certain period in our life the successful achievement
of which leads to happiness and success with later
tasks while failure leads to unhappiness social
approval and difficulty with later tasks

John W. Santrock -> There are 8 developmental stages given by

Santrock. It is the same with Havighurst’s 6 stages only that
Havighurst didn’t include the pre-natal period. Havighurst combined
infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as 2
separate stages.
MIDDLE & LATE CHILDHOOD (6-12 years) This is called
elementary school years children master the fundamental skills of
reading writing and math achievement becomes a more central
theme and self-control increases in this period children interact more
with the wider social world beyond their family.
they have both large and small muscles that are well
developed. they also develop complex motor skills. they become
independent and they do independent activities the same sex group
activities and there's already an acceptance by peers.
 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
8. Achieving personal independence
9. Developing acceptable attitudes toward society

>Adolescence (13-18)
1. Achieving mature relations with both sexes.
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
ADOLESCENCE (13-18 years) an adolescent experiences puberty. 3. Accepting one’s physique
trying to establish self-identity. experience confrontation with 4. Achieving emotional independence of adults
authority. 5. Preparing for marriage and family life
6. Preparing for an economic career
7. Acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior
8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.

> Early Adulthood (19-29)

1. Selecting a mate
2. Learning to live with a partner
EARLY ADULTHOOD (19-29 years) 3. Starting a family
It is the time of establishing personal and
4. Rearing children
economic independence career development selecting a mate
learning to live with someone in an intimate way and starting a family 5. Managing a home
and reading children. 6. Starting an occupation
7. Assuming civic responsibility

>Middle Adulthood (30-60)

1. Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible
adults.
2. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility
3. Satisfactory career achievement
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (30-60 years) During middle adulthood we 4. Developing adult leisure time activities
consider the physical changes that begin to occur, hair begins to thin 5. Relating to one’s spouse as a person
and gray, there is already wrinkles that appears, Hearing, vision, and
6. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age
also the muscle tone decreases. The main concerns are children,
health, job security, aging parents and fear of aging. 7. Adjusting to aging parent

>Later Maturity (61-and over)

1. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health
2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3. Adjusting to death of spouse
4. Establishing relations with one’s own age group
5. Meeting social and civic obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory living quarters
LATE ADULTHOOD (61 years and above) This is the fastest
growing age bracket of the society. this is the time for adjustment to
SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
decreasing strength and health among our grandparents. This is a time
Sigmund Freud is the most popular and most controversial psychologist
for life review, a time for retirement and adjustment to new rules.
that studied development of personality.
In this stage, they are also very concerned with the health and
His theory of Psychosexual development has 5 distinct stages.
finances significant number of become depressed and sometimes it
According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these 5
leads to depression and suicide.
stages and along the way it needs to be met. Personality is most
established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in
HAVIGHURST’S DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
personality development and continued to influence behavior in later
>Infancy- Early Childhood (0-5) life.
1. Learning to walk Freud also believed that personality develops through a series of
2. Learning to take solid foods childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id
3. Learning to talk become focused on certain erogenous zones. When these needs are
4. learning to control the elimination of body wastes not met along an area/zone, a fixation occurs.
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
6. Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and EROGENOUS ZONES- an area or part of the body sensitive to
physical reality stimulation that is a source of erotic or sexual feeling or pleasure.
7. getting ready to read FIXATION- When one's desire is tied to an object of desire connected
to an earlier phase in one's psychosexual development.
>Middle Childhood (6-12)
STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
1. ORAL (birth to 18 months)
2. Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself
- Erogenous Zone- Mouth
3. Learning to get along with age-mates
4. Learning an appropriate sex role
 - The child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much JEAN PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
or too little satisfaction can lead to an oral Fixation or oral
personality.
2. ANAL (18 months to 3 years)
- Erogenous Zone- Anus
- The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces.
3. PHALLIC (3 to 6 years)
- Erogenous Zone- Genitals
- During the preschool age, children become interested in
what makes and boys different.
4. LATENCY (6 to puberty)
- Oedipus & Electra complex - Sexual urges are
repressed.
- The children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and COGNITIVE – derived from the Latin word “cognosco” which means
academic skills. Boys relate with boys and girls with o know or to recognize or to conceptualize
girls. COGNITION – is the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge
5. GENITAL (puberty onwards) and understanding and through the thought, experience, and the
senses.
- Sexual urges awakened once again
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - this is the acquisition of the ability to
- Adolescents focus their sexual urges towards opposite sex think reason and problem solving. this is also the process by which
peers, with pleasure centered on the genitals.
people's thinking changes across the lifespan. It is the growing
apprehension and
adaptation to the physical and social environment.

BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS.

SCHEMA - is internal representation of the world it helps an

individual understand the world they inhabit. They are cognitive
structures they represent a certain aspect of the world and can be
seen as categories which have certain preconceived ideas in them.
ASSIMILATION - it is using an existing eczema or a schema sorry
to deal with a new object or situation. In assimilation the schema is
not changed it is only modified
ACCOMODATION - The process of creating new schema. this
happens when the system schema or knowledge does not work it
needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation. in
accommodation the schema is altered and a new schema may be
developed.

Stages of cognitive development

- It focuses on the prominence of the senses

and muscle movements through which the
infant comes to learn about himself and the
world.

Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature.

the child can now make mental representations,
and is able to pretend, the child is now ever
closer to the use of symbols.

The Unconscious – Most of what we go through in our lives,

emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available
to us. The Conscious – All that we are aware of are stored in our
conscious mind.
The Subconscious – the part of us that we can reach if prompted, This stage is characterized by the ability of the
but is not in our active conscious. child to think logically but only in terms of
concrete objects.

The child thinks more logical and they can
now solve abstract problems and can
hypothesize.
MALADAPTATIONS – It is not as quite as bad and involves too much
of the positive and too little of the negative aspect of the task.
MUTUALITY – reflects the effect of generations on each other,
especially among families, and particularly between parents and
children and grandchildren.
GENERATIVITY – reflects the significant relationship between adults
and the best interests of children – one’s own children, and in a way
everyone else’s children – the next generation, and all following
generations.

KEY WORDS: THE 8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:

1. OBJECT PERMANENCE – the ability of the child to know

that an object still exists even when out of sight.
2. SYMBOLIC FUNCTION – the ability to represent objects
and events.
3. EGOCENTRISM – the tendency of the child to only see his
point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same
point of view.
4. CENTRATION – the tendency of the child to only focus on
one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.
5. IRREVERSIBILITY – the inability to reverse their thinking.
6. ANIMISM - the tendency of children to attribute human-
like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
7. TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING - a child’s type of
reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning
appears to be from particular to particular (If A Causes B,
then B causes A).
8. INDUCTIVE REASONING - a type of reasoning that
involves drawing a general conclusion from a set of specific
observations.
9. DEDUCTIVE REASONING – The ability to link logically by STAGES Age Psychosocia Malignanc Maladaptat Virtue
applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation. l Crisis y ion

10. DECENTERING – the ability of the child to perceive the 1. Birth Trust Withdra Sensory Hope
INFA to Vs. wal: Maladjust
different features of objects and situations.
NCY 12– Mistrus ment:
11. REVERSIBILITY – the ability of a person to follow that 18 t
certain operations can be done in reverse. mon
12. CONSERVATION – the ability to know that certain ths
properties like numbers, mass, volume, or area do not 2. Early 18 Autono V Impulsiv Compulsiv Willpowe
change even if there is a change in appearance. childho mont my s. eness eness r or
13. SERIATION - the ability to order or arrange things in a od hs to Shame An determin
3 Doubt d ation
series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or
years
size.
3. 3 Initiati V Inhibitio Ruthlessn Purpose
14. HYPOTHETICAL REASONING – the ability to come up
Middle year ve s. n ess or
with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and childho s to Guilt Courag
weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgement od 5 e
15. ANALOGICAL REASONING – the ability to perceive the year
relationship in one instance and then use that relationship s
to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation 4. 6 to 12 Industr v Inertia Narrow Compet
or problem. Pubert years y s. Virtuosity ency
y inferior
ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT ity
5. 12 to Identit v Repudiat Fanaticis Fidelity
INTRODUCTION Adoles 18 y s. ion m
Psychosocial is derived from 2 source words: cence years confusi
Psychological- the root, psycho, relating to the mind, brain, on
personality etc. 6. Early 18 to Intima v Exclusio Promiscui Love
Social – external relationships and environment Adultho 30 cy s. n ty
This theory is largely influenced by Sigmund Freud but Erikson od years isolatio
extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social aspects. n
EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE - this principle says that we develop 7. 40 to Generativit Rejectivi Overexten Caring
through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight Middle 60 y vs. ty sion
stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our Adultho years stagnation
success or failure in all the previous stages. od
PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS – 2 Opposing emotional forces. Also known 8. Late Over Integrity vs. Disdain Presumpti Wisdo
as contrary dispositions Adultho 65 despair on m
od years
SYNTONIC – positive disposition
DYSTONIC – negative disposition
MALIGNANCY – it is the worse of the two. It involves too little of the
positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task
KEY WORDS:
1. Withdrawal- the child is tipped way over the mistrust
side; characterized by depression, paranoia, and possibly
psychosis
2. Sensory Maladjustment- Overly trusting, gullible, this
person cannot believe anyone would mean them harm.
3. Hope- Strong belief that even when things don’t go well,
they will work out ell in the end.
4. Impulsiveness- Shameless willfulness that leads to
jumping into things
without proper consideration of your abilities.
5. Compulsiveness- The person feels that their entire being
rides on everything they do, and so everything must be
done perfectly.
6. Willpower- Determination or the Can do Attitude
7. Inhibition- the person will not try things because
“nothing ventured, nothing lost”, and nothing to be guilty
about.
8. Ruthlessness- to be heartless or unfeeling or be “without
mercy”
9. Sociopathy- the extreme form of ruthlessness.
10. Purpose- Courage, the capacity for action despite a clear
understanding of your limitations and past failings.
11. Inertia- Inferiority complex, If at first you failed, don’t
ever try again.
12. Narrow Virtuosity- Children who are not allowed to be
children. Children who are pushed into one are of
competence without allowing the development of broader
interests.
13. Competency- The right balance of industry and inferiority
which is mostly industry with a touch of inferiority to keep
the person humble.
14. Repudiation- the lack of identity, to reject their
membership in the world of adults and their need for an
identity.
15. Fanaticism- a person believes that his way is the only
way.
16. Fidelity- Loyalty, the ability to live by societies standards
despite their imperfections and incompleteness and
inconsistencies.
17. Exclusion- the tendency to isolate oneself from love,
friendship and community. To develop a hatefulness in
compensation for one’s loneliness.
18. Promiscuity- the tendency to become intimate too freely,
too easily and without any depth to your intimacy.
19. Love- Being able to put aside differences and antagonisms
through mutuality of devotion.
20. Rejectivity- No longer participating in or contributing to
society.
21. Overextension- the tendency to be generative that they
no longer allow time for themselves, for rest and
relaxation.
22. Generativity- Extension of love into the future. A concern
for the next generation and all future generations.
23. Stagnation-Self-Absorption, caring for no one.
24. Disdain- a contempt of life, one’s own or any-one’s. the
person is very negative and appears to hate life.
25. Presumption- A person presumes ego integrity without
actually facing the difficulties. The person believe that he
alone is right and no one else is.
26. Wisdom- the strength of having no fear when one is
approaching death.
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg is known for his theory of moral development which was
influenced by Piaget's and Dewey's theories. He believed that people
progressed in their ability to reason morally through 6 stages, with
three levels largely by social interaction.
Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking
through their experiences which include understandings of moral
concepts such as justice, rights, equality and human welfare.
Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas also known as Kohlberg
dilemmas. He presented these dilemmas to the individuals in his
research and asked for their responses. He didn't aim to judge
whether the responses were right or wrong. He was interested in
analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
Kohlberg identified 6 stages of moral reasoning grouped into 3
major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-
moral reasoning or perspective of the person.
LEVEL STAGE Description
Pre-conventional level 1 Punishment/Obedience
-Moral Reasoning is based -one is motivated by fear of
on the consequence/result punishment. He will act in order to
of the avoid punishment.
act, not on the whether the
2 Mutual Benefit
act itself is good or bad.
-One is motivated to act by the benefit
that one may obtain later. You scratch
my back, I’ll scratch yours.
Conventional 3 Social Approval
-Moral Reasoning is based -One is motivated by what others
on the conventions or expect in behavior: good boy, good
“norms” of society. This girl. The person acts because he/she
may include values how he/she will appear to
approval of others others. He/she gives importance on
,law
what people will think or say.
and
order. 4 Law and Order
Post-Conventional -One is motivated to act in order to
-Moral Reasoning is based uphold law and order. The person will
on enduring or consistent follow the law because it is the law.
principles. It is not just
5 Social Contract
recognizing the law, but the
-Laws that are wrong can be changed.
principles behind the law.
One will act based on social justice and
common good.
6 Universal Principles
-This is associated with the
development of one’s conscience.
Having a set of standards that drives
one to possess moral responsibility to
make societal changes regardless of
consequences to oneself. Examples of
persons are Mother Teresa, Martin
Luther King Jr.
LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY
Born in Russia in 1896. His work began when he was studying learning
and development to improve his own teaching. In his lifetime, he wrote
on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development
and educating students with special needs.
Vygotsky’s ideas about language, culture, and cognitive development
have become major influences in psychology and education today.
Vygotsky learned through the Socratic Method where it is a question
and answer approach that allowed him to examine current thinking
and practice higher levels of understanding. This experience, together
with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher, led him to
recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in
cognitive development.
Social Interaction
-Vygotsky gave weight on the social interactions that contributed to
the cognitive development of individuals. The Environment and the
community take on a major role in one’s development.
-He emphasized that effective learning happens through
participation in social activities, making the social context of learning
crucial.
Cultural factors
-He believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive
development of children. He looked into wide range of experiences
that a culture would give to a child. For instance, one culture’s view
about education, how children trained early in life can contribute to
the cognitive development of the child.
Language
-Language opens a door for learners to acquire knowledge that others
already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the
world and solve problems. This serves as a social function but it also
has an important individual function. It helps the learners regulate and
regulate on his own thinking.
For Vygotsky, this “talking to oneself” is a indication of the thinking
that goes on in the mind of the child. This will eventually lead to
private speech.
Private speech
-It is a form of Self-talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.
He believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn
best through hands-on activities or learning by doing than when
listening passively. It is even more fruitful when children interact with
knowledgeable adults and peers.
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Zone of proximal development: -With the guidance of a MKO, the
child can perform at a higher level of competency. -The difference
between what the child can accomplish alone and what she can
accomplish with the guidance of another Zone of actual development:
-When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be
immediately proficient at it. So, alone she may perform it at a certain
level of competency.
More Knowledgeable other (MKO)
-Competent adult or a more advanced peer SCAFFOLDING: The
support or assistance that lets the child accomplish independently.
Scaffold and fade-away technique: As learners become more
proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not
initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn.
URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY OF
DEVELOPMENT
Bronfenbrenner’s Model also known as Bioecological Systems
theory presents child development within the context of relationship
systems that comprise the child’s environment. It describes multipart
layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the
child. Each layer is further made up of different structures.
The term “Bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-
up impacts as a key factor in one’s development. Through the child’s
growing and developing body and the interplay between his immediate
family/community environment and the societal landscape that fuels
and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any layer will ripple
throughout other layers.
Structure of Environment
The Microsystem
The layer nearest the child. It comprises of the structures that directly
interacts with the child. It covers the most basic relationships and
interactions that a child has in his/her immediate environment.
Bi-directional influences- The child is affected by the behavior and
beliefs of the parents and the parents are affected by the behavior and
beliefs of the child.
The mesosytem
This layer serves as the connection between the structures of the
child’s microsystem. This includes the link or interaction between
parents and teachers, or parents and health services or the community
and the church
The Exosystem
This refers to the bigger social systems in which the child
does not function directly. This includes the city government, the
workplace, and the mass media. This structure influences the child by
somehow affecting some structures in the child’s microsystem.
The Macrosystem
This layer is found in the outermost part of the child’s environment.
This includes the cultural values, customs and laws. The belief system
contained in one’s macrosystem permeates all the interactions in the
other layers and reaches the individual. Differences in beliefs and
customs, children from different parts of the world experience
different childrearing practices and therefore differences in
development as well.
The chronosystem
Covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s
environments. This involves “patterns of stability and change” in the
child’s life. This involves whether the child’s day characterized by an
orderly predictable pattern, or subjected to sudden changes in
routine.
The children may have also acquired the ability to cope and decide
to what extent they will allow changes around them to affect them.
Role of Schools and Teachers
BRONFENBRENNER concluded
“The instability and unpredictability of family life is the most
destructive force to a child’s development.” Researches tells us that
absence or lack of children’s constant mutual interaction with
important adults has negative effects on their development.
According to the Bioecological Theory “If the Relationships
in the immediate microsystem breaks down, the child will not have
the tools to explore other parts of his environment.”
The schools and teachers can contribute
stability and long-term relationships, but only to support and
not replace the relationships at home. Schools and teacher’s crucial
role is to work so that the school becomes an environment that
welcome and nurtures families.
Bronfenbrenner believes that “the Primary relationship
needs to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring that is
meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a person
or people within the immediate sphere of the child’s influence.” He also
stressed that society should value work done on behalf of the children
at all levels, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended
family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators.