GRAVITATION

FORCES IN THE UNIVERSE

Kinds of Forces 1. Gravity 2. Electromagnetism * magnetism * electrostatic forces 3. Weak Nuclear Force 4. Strong Nuclear Force Increasing Strength

proton



Electromag netic Force 38 $ 10 Gravitatio nal Force

electron

Strong Force binds together protons & neutrons in atomic nuclei

proton


Weak Force: n Decay of the Neutron

electron

GRAVITATION

GRAVITY keeps the moon orbiting Earth . . . and Dactyl orbiting Ida . . . It holds stars together . . .

And binds galaxies together for billions of years . . . Prevents planets from losing their atmospheres . . .

FALLING BODIES

Falling objects accelerate at a constant rate (Galileo): Speed is gained at a constant rate: Ball 9.8 m/sec/sec Acceleration due to gravity

p. 82

Earth

Time (sec) Speed (m/sec) 1 9.8 2 19.6 3 29.4 4 39.2 6 58.8 8 78.4 10 98

Acceleration is same for ALL OBJECTS, regardless of mass!

120 100

80

Speed (m/sec)

60

40

20 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Time (sec)

Newtons 2nd law force (F) is acting on falling ball (mass = m)

y

Ball m F

All masses have same acceleration . . . so more mass means more force needed:

F w m

Earth

Newtons 3rd law ball pulls on Earth

Ball

F Does Earth accelerate? F Earth

UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

All bits of matter attract all other bits of matter . . . M1 F d F M2

1. F w M1M 2 1 2. F w 2 d
p. 92 Inverse square law

1. Increase one or both masses, and force increases. 2. Force decreases as distance increases. M1 F d F M2 Force 400 N 100 N 25 N 16 N 4N Distance 10 m 20 m 40 m 50 m 100 m

400 400 100 ! 2 ! 4 2

Force Distance 400 10 178 15 100 20 44.4 30 25 40 16 50 11.1 60 8.2 70 6.25 80 4 100

120

100

80

60

Force

40

Force never becomes zero.

20

0 0 100 200 300 400 500

Distance

Putting the two parts of the force law together . . .

GM 1M 2 F! d2

(G = gravitational constant)

y Acts through empty space action at a distance y Explains how gravity behaves but not why

WEIGHT

p. 83

Weight
y Measure of gravitational attraction of Earth (or any other planet) for you. m M F R Earth Weight

GMm W!F! R2

Other planets: M and R change, so your weight must change

A real planet . . . Mars: R = 0.53 x Earths radius M = 0.11 x Earths mass Earth 150 lbs Mars 59 lbs

Weight

Weight can be made to apparently increase . . .

upward acceleration

p. 83

. . . or decrease!

9.8 m/s/s Free-fall downward acceleration Weightlessness

EARTHS MASS

Earths mass

your mass

GMm W ! 2 R
your weight Earths radius M = 6 x 1024 kg

HOW DO THE PLANETS GO?

Planets appear star-like

Planets move, relative to the stars.

Planets reside near Ecliptic.

[SkyGlobe]

Aliens eye view . . .

Venus Sun

Earth

Mars Complicated!

Yet, patterns may be discerned . . .

Planets remain near ecliptic within Zodiac.

Brightness changes in a regular pattern. Mercury & Venus always appear near Sun in sky. Mars, Jupiter & Saturn may be near Sun, but neednt be. Planets travel eastward relative to stars most of the time, but sometimes they reverse direction & go west!

Jupiter & Venus are currently in Gemini.

Ancient Greek geocentric solar system

Motionless Earth * Earth too heavy to be moved * If Earth moved, wouldnt we notice? > Relative motion argument > Parallax argument Earth at center of Universe * This is Earths natural place > Heavy stuff sinks * This is the natural place of humankind > Were most important (?)

Ptolemy (85 165 AD)

Results:

Planet-Earth distance changes y Planet sometimes goes backward

y

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 1543)

First modern heliocentric (suncentered) model of solar system Founder of modern astronomy Not first astronomer!

Copernicus heliocentric model, simplified

Galileo Galilei 1564 - 1642

Galileo observes Jupiters four largest moons

Telescopic View

Allowed possibility that there are many centers of motion not just Earth. Jupiters moons in motion.

Venus shows a full set of phases like the moons

Venus motion according to . . .

Ptolemy (new & crescent phases)

Copernicus (full set of phases)

ORBITS

NEWTON: Gravity explains how planets (and moons & satellites & etc.) go.
y

Any motion controlled only by gravity is an orbit

Without gravity With gravity

Sun

Several trajectories are possible. . . Circle

Object is effectively continuously falling toward the sun . . . . . . But never gets there!

Imagine launching a ball sideways near Earth . . .

Possible trajectories: y y y y Circle Ellipse Parabola Hyperbola

Escape

Which one you get depends on speed (v)!

Trajectories are conics

These are only possible orbits for inverse square law force.

y Circles & Ellipses: Bound orbits y Parabolas & Hyperbolas: Escape orbits v > 5 mi/sec Escape: v u 7 mi/sec v Earth v $ 5 mi/sec

KEPLERS LAWS

Johannes Kepler (1571 1630)

By the study of the orbit of Mars, we must either arrive at the secrets of astronomy or forever remain in ignorance of them. - J. Kepler

Tycho Brahe

1. Planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus

Sun (Focus)

Focus Semi-major axis (a)

67,000 mi/hr

Aphelion

Perihelion

Earth: a = 1.00 AU = 92, 980.000 mi aphelion = 1.0167 AU = 94,530,000 mi perihelion = 0.9833 AU = 91,420,000 mi

Eccentricity (e): Measure of shape of ellipse e = c/a a = semi-major axis c = dist center to focus 0 < e< 1

A few objects orbiting the sun . . . . . . a

Earth Mars Pluto Halleys Comet 1.0 AU 1.52 39.5 17.8

e
0.0167 0.0934 0.250 0.967

Semi-major axis, or mean distance between planet & sun

2. A line drawn from planet to sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times

2nd Law Demo

3. The cube of the mean planet-sun distance is directly proportional to the square of the planets orbit period
a3 = P2 Or, a3/ P2 a: AU P: years

=1

3rd Law Demo

Solar System:
P Mercury 0.241 Venus 0.615 Earth 1 Mars 1.881 Jupiter 11.86 Saturn 29.46 Uranus 84.01 Neptune 164.8 Pluto 248.5 a 0.387 0.723 1 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.19 30.06 39.53 P2 0.058 0.378 1 3.538 140.7 867.8 7058 27156 61752 a3 P2/a3 0.058 1 0.378 1 1 1 3.538 1 140.8 0.999 867.9 1 7068 0.998 27165 1 61768 1

70000 60000 50000 Square of pe riod 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 Cube of semi-major axis

Newton modified Keplers 3rd Law:

a 1! 2 P
m M units of the Suns mass

a M  m ! 2 P

SUNS MASS

Mass of the Sun 1 AU 1 yr

4T 3 P ! a G(M  m)
2 2

Suns Mass

Earths mass

M = 2 x 1030 kg $ 330,000 Earth masses (!)

CENTER OF MASS ORBITS

Finally (at last ) . . . the true story of orbits We left something out . . .

Planet Sun

Sun pulls on planet . . . planet pulls on sun Sun moves a little, too!

Exaggerated view:

Circular orbits

X = center of both orbits

P

Consider Jupiter & the Sun . . . Center of Mass

X 0.0052 AU 5.2 AU

Suns motion is small!

Gravitational Orbits Animation

Earth & Moon:

X 2900 mi 235,500 mi

2900 mi < Earths radius!

Gravitational Orbits Animation

Discovery of Neptune

1846: Presence of Neptune predicted from irregularities in Uranus orbit. (J. C. Adams & U. J. J. Leverrier)

Neptune
Speeds up

Uranus

Slows down