More Non-Ideal Properties

   

Bias Current Offset Voltage Saturation Applications of saturation

Bias Current


 

All op-amps draw a small constant d.c. bias currents at their inputs. Typical value for a 741 is around 100 nA. This is only notable when very high impedance sources are used. In such cases, an alternative op-amp with lower bias current should be used. NB. Bias current is separate to input impedance. It is equivalent to a current source in parallel with the input impedance.

Offset Voltage


 

When both input voltages are equal, the output should be zero. Actually it probably won t be due to an offset voltage between the inputs. Typically, this is around 2 mV. This isn t much but is magnified so much by the opamp gain that it will probably saturate. Offset voltage is automatically compensated by a negative feedback network. Can be a problem for precision comparator applications.

D.C. Equivalent Circuit



Both the offset voltage and bias current are d.c. A.C. operation is not affected by them (they just add an offset) Negative feedback reduces the effect of both Steps can be taken to reduce them (further reading)

Saturation
 

VOUT cannot exceed the supply voltages. In fact, typically VOUT can only get to within about 1.5 V of the supplies.
VOUT

VOUT

Desired Output W aveform

Actual Output Wa veform

Consequences of Saturation


Unwanted when:


Linear amplification was required A clipping effect is required (e.g. distortion effects popular with guitarists) The op-amp is used as a comparator

Wanted when:


Essential when:


Non-Linear Op-Amp Applications



Applications using saturation

  

Comparators Comparator with hysteresis (Schmitt trigger) Oscillators

Applications using active feedback components

 

Log, antilog, squaring etc. amplifiers Precision rectifier

Comparators
VOUT
Ideal response VOUT = A0VIN

Practical response (clipped)

VIN

If A0 is large, practical response can be approximated as : VIN > 0 V+ > V- VOUT = +VSAT VIN < 0 V+ < V- VOUT = -VSAT

Microcap Demo 1

Hysteresis
 

A comparator with hysteresis has a safety margin . One of two thresholds is used depending on the current output state.

V
Upper threshold

time
Lower threshold

Schmitt Trigger


The Schmitt trigger is an op-amp comparator circuit featuring hysteresis. The inverting variety is the most commonly used.

Schmitt Trigger Analysis

Switching occurs when: R1 VIN ! V ! V ! VOUT R1  R2 But, VOUT ! sVSAT @VTHRESH ! sVSAT R1 R1  R2

Microcap Demo 2

Input-Output Relationship
(i) VOUT +VSAT VOUT +VSAT -VTHRESH 0 +VTHRESH VIN -VSAT 0 VIN -VSAT -VTHRESH 0 +VTHRESH VIN (ii) (iii) VOUT +VSAT

-VSAT

VIN increasing

VIN decreasing

(i) & (ii) combined

Asymmetrical Thresholds


We don t always want the threshold levels to be symmetrical around 0 V. More general configuration features an arbitrary reference level.

Analysis
Using Kirchoff s current law: VOUT  V VREF  V  !0 R2 R1 VOUT VREF V V R1  R2  !  ! V R2 R1 R2 R1 R1 R2 V ! VOUT R1 R2  VREF R1  R2 R1  R2

Realising VREF
R1 R2  VREF Solving VTHRESH ! sVSAT R1  R2 R1  R2 often gives a value of VREF that isn t available. But,

Providing R1 ! r1 || r2 and VREF

r2 ! VS r1  r2

Summary


Saturation of op-amps is exploited by comparator circuits. Their function is to decide whether an input voltage is greater or less than a reference level. Hysteresis is often applied to provide some resilience against noise.