CELLS

CSEC and IGCSE BIOLOGY

WHY WE NEED MICROSCOPES
The cell is the basic unit of life. A cell cannot be viewed by the naked eye
since it is too small. It can only be seen with a microscope. Cells are thus
described as being microscopic.

A microscope is used to produce a magnified image of an object. There are

different kinds of microscopes, for example, light and electron. When
looking through the microscope at a piece of tissue, separate cells can be
distinguished which would not have been seen with the naked eye. How
much you can see with a microscope depends on how powerful its
magnification is. A light microscope typically magnifies between 10 and
400 times real size. An electron microscope is more powerful and can
magnify tens of thousands of times actual size
CALCULATING THE SIZE OF CELLS
• The actual size of an object in a photograph can easily be
calculated from the image and the magnification given. If the
length of the object in the photo is measured as Z, and the
magnification is given as x100, that means the object is 100
times larger than in real life. So, the actual size of the object is Z
divided by 100.
CELLS
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living
organisms. Some organisms are unicellular, being composed of a
single cell; others are multicellular, being composed of many
cells. Cells are so small that they can only be seen with a
microscope and not with the naked eye.
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
• All plant and animal cells contain structures called organelles which are
specialised to carry out one or
• more vital functions, e.g. the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts and vacuoles.
Organelles are found
• within the cytoplasm of the cells and most are surrounded by one or two
membranes.
• The following structures are found in all plant and animal cells:
• • a cell membrane or plasma membrane
• • cytoplasm
• • a nucleus
• • mitochondria (singular mitochondrion).
CONT’D
• In addition to the above, plant cells also possess:
• • a cell wall
• • chloroplasts
• • a large vacuole.
• The cytoplasm and nucleus together are referred to as
protoplasm
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL
CONT’D
ORGANELLES AND IT’S FUNCTION
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL
CELL
MICROBE CELLS
• Microbes or micro-organisms are extremely small organisms
that include all members of the Prokaryotae kingdom, e.g.
bacteria, many members of the Protoctista kingdom, e.g. amoeba,
and some members of the Fungi kingdom, e.g. yeast.
• The cells of prokaryotes lack a true nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles. Their DNA exists in a region called
the nucleoid, which lacks a nuclear membrane, and also in
smaller regions called plasmids.
UNICELLULAR MICROBES
• Microbes are microscopic organisms (microorganisms) that cannot
be seen by the naked eye, only by using a microscope. Most, but not
all, are single-celled organisms, and are so tiny that millions could
fit in the eye of a needle. Microbes are everywhere, in the air we
breathe, the ground we walk on and in the food we eat. They are
even inside us. They include:

• viruses
• bacteria
• protozoa.
VIRUSES

• These are very small and can only be seen with an electron
microscope. They are not made of cells and are sometimes
referred to as virus particles or virions. They cannot be killed by
antibiotics such as penicillin. Examples of diseases they cause
include influenza, common cold, measles, mumps, German
measles (Rubella), smallpox, chickenpox, HIV (can lead to AIDS),
and rabies.
BACTERIA CELL
PROTOZOA
• These are generally single-celled organisms (figure 8.5). Amoeba
is very common and can be found in backyard ponds and drains.
Examples of diseases they cause include malaria, sleeping
sickness, and dysentery.
CELL SPECIALISATION IN MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS
• Organisms can be described as unicellular or multicellular.
Unicellular organisms like Amoeba (animal) and Chlorella (plant)
are just one cell in size. Multicellular organisms, like all the larger
animals and plants, are made up of many (sometimes millions) of
cells.

• The cells of unicellular organisms (e.g., Amoeba and bacteria) are

independent but are still able to carry out all characteristics of life.
Multicellular organisms, however, are made up of millions of cells.
These cells work together and are often dependent on each other
to carry out all the characteristics of life.
CONT’D
• In multicellular organisms, each cell has the same basic
structure, but there are variations in the design. Within a single
organism, such as a human, there are great differences between
the cells. Each type of cell is specialized to carry out a particular
function well. For example, a muscle cell is concerned with
contraction of the muscle, while a nerve cell is specialized to
transmit nerve impulses (figure 8.6).
CONT’D
• In a multicellular organism, cells are arranged in groups to form
tissues. A tissue is a structure made up of many similar or identical
cells which are adapted to perform one specific function. Muscle cells
make up muscle tissue and all these cells are concerned with the
muscle function of contraction.

• Several different kinds of tissue may be grouped to form an organ.

For example, intestines contain epithelial tissue and muscle tissue
and a blood supply (figure 8.7). In animals, organs form parts of even
larger functional units called systems. The digestive system is made
up of several organs, including the stomach, intestines, and liver.
CONT’D
• Cells in plants are also grouped into tissues, and tissues grouped
into organs (figure 8.8). Table 8.3 shows examples of tissues,
organs, and systems that are found in plants and animals.
C0NT’D
• A healthy organism is made up of all these parts working efficiently together,
enabling it to do many things at the same time, such as use its energy source
and make the energy available for movement, reproduction, growth,
response, and excretion. A total breakdown in the normal functioning of any
one of these systems can lead to the death of the organism, such as a heart
attack when the circulatory system breaks down.

• Most animals are either predator or prey in food chains. A healthy organism
has all its systems functioning efficiently and so is able to survive in the
environment or wild. Unhealthy organisms may be unable to capture food or
fall prey to predators more easily. Survival is for the fittest, meaning that an
organism with all its systems functioning efficiently and continuously has an
advantage for survival - an advantage for life
MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND OUT OF
CELLS
• Substances can move into and out of cells, and from cell to cell,
by three different processes:
• • diffusion
• • osmosis
• • active transport.
DIFFUSION

• Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration until the
particles are evenly distributed.
• The particles are said to move down a concentration gradient.
Particles in gases, liquids and solutions are capable of diffusing.
Diffusion is the way cells obtain many of their requirements and
get rid of their waste products which, if not removed, would
poison them
THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING
ORGANISMS
• Oxygen, for use in aerobic respiration, moves into organisms through
gaseous exchange surfaces and into cells by diffusion.
• • Carbon dioxide, produced in aerobic respiration, moves out of cells and
out of organisms through gaseous exchange surfaces by diffusion.
• • Carbon dioxide, for use in photosynthesis, moves into leaves and plant
cells by diffusion.
• • Oxygen, produced in photosynthesis, moves out of plant cells and
leaves by diffusion.
• • Some of the glucose and amino acids produced in digestion are
absorbed through the cells in the ileum and capillary walls and into the
blood by diffusion.
MOVEMENT BY DIFFUSION

• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of high

concentration of those molecules to a region of lower concentration of
those molecules. Diffusion can happen in gases and in liquids.

• A diffusion gradient or concentration gradient occurs when there is a

difference in the number of molecules, or the concentration of
molecules between the two regions. For example, when a drop of dye is
added to water, the dye molecules move around and between the water
molecules and eventually are spread evenly, even when not stirred. In
other words, the dye molecules move from where they are plentiful to
where they are not so plentiful. We say these diffuse (figure 8.10).
SOME EXAMPLES OF DIFFUSION IN THE HUMAN
BODY
• After a meal, the end-products of digestion are at a high
concentration in the gut. They diffuse down their concentration
gradient into the blood where they are at a lower concentration
(figure 8.12).
CONT’D
• Diffusion occurs in the lungs (figure 8.13). Carbon dioxide diffuses from
the blood where it is at high concentration into the lungs where its
concentration is lower. Oxygen diffuses in the other direction because it
has a higher concentration in the lungs and a lower concentration in the
blood.

• When the blood gets near the cells, the oxygen concentration in the
blood is higher than in the cells. The blood came from the lungs where it
picked up oxygen. The oxygen concentration in the cell is low, since the
oxygen that was in the cell was used for respiration. The oxygen in the
blood diffuses into the cell, where it can be used for energy production
during respiration (figure 8.14).
CONT’D
• In the cells, carbon dioxide builds up as a waste product of respiration. It is at a higher
concentration than in the blood. Thus it diffuses out of the cell and into the blood.

• Other wastes made by cells, such as ammonia, are at a higher concentration in the cell
than in the blood. They also diffuse out of the cell to the blood and are taken away and
expelled from the body.

• Diffusion is a very slow process unless there is a large concentration gradient over a
short distance. Tissues like the lungs and small intestine are especially adapted to
maximize the rate (figure 8.15). Adaptations include:
keeping the difference between the concentration on each side as high as possible
(maintaining a steep concentration gradient);
CONT’D
• having a large surface area to volume ratio so that molecules
have as large a surface area of cells as possible to diffuse
through;
• being very thin and thus minimizing the distance over which
diffusion must take place.
MOVEMENT BY OSMOSIS
• Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. It is the diffusion of water
molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. Cell
membranes are all selectively permeable membranes.
‘Selectively permeable’ means that water and some substances
can pass through the membrane but other substances do not.
OSMOSIS IN PLANT CELLS
• When a plant cell is put into a solution which has the same
concentration as the cell contents (isotonic), some water
molecules will move into the cell through the cell membrane and
some will move out. There is no concentration gradient so the
movements each way are the same and balance each other out.
We say there is no net movement, or net flow, of water (figure
8.16).
CONT’D
• When a plant cell is put into a solution that is less concentrated (hypotonic)
than the cell contents, there is a greater concentration of water molecules
outside than inside. Some water molecules move out of the cell but more
move into the cell, so there is a net flow of water into the cell. The cell
becomes full of water and is described as being turgid.

• When a plant cell is put into a solution that is more concentrated (hypertonic)
than the cell contents, there are fewer water molecules outside than inside. A
few water molecules move into the cell but many more move out. When there
is a net flow of water out of the cell, the cell loses water and is described as
being flaccid. Flaccid cells are easy to distinguish under the microscope
because the cell membrane and contents pull away from the cell wall.
OSMOSIS IN ANIMAL CELLS
• An animal cell has no cell wall like a plant cell, so hypotonic and
hypertonic solutions have different effects. In a hypotonic
(dilute) solution there is a net flow of water into the cell. With no
strong cell wall to prevent the membrane from stretching too far,
it eventually bursts. In a hypertonic (concentrated) solution
there is a net flow of water out of the cell and the whole cell
shrinks (figure 8.17).
It is important that cells are protected from large changes in the concentration
of the solutions around them. Animal bodies have complex mechanisms to do
this, referred to as osmoregulation and homeostasis
REFERENCES
• Biology for CSEC Examinations – Linda Atwaroo-Ali
• Concise Revision Course: CSEC Biology-Anne Tindale