Chapter 3

Cell Structure
 Concepts (1 of 4)
• All organisms are
composed of cells.
• Plant cells consist of a
box-like cell wall
surrounding a mass of
protoplasm.
• The protoplasm contains
organelles, such as Courtesy of R. Fulginiti, University of Texas, Austin

− Nuclei
− Mitochondria
− Chloroplasts
 Concepts (2 of 4)
• Cells are the physical framework within which a
plant’s metabolism occurs.
• Water and salts are absorbed from soil by root
cells. They are transported throughout the plant
by cells of the vascular tissues.
• The energy of sunlight is used in leaf cells to
convert carbon dioxide and water to
carbohydrates.
• Plant reproduction is also based on cells and
cell biology.
 Concepts (3 of 4)
• Although multicellular organisms are
complex, there are only a few types of
cells.
• It is the interaction among these cell types
that leads to distinctions among tissues
and organisms.
 Concepts (4 of 4)
• Cells in various parts become adapted for
specific tasks.
• Division of labor allows the entire
organism to become more efficient.
− Negative consequence, damage to part of
the organism may lead to death of all cells.
 Membranes
• Membranes perform many important
tasks in cell metabolism.
− They regulate the passage of molecules into
and out of cells and organelles.
− They divide the cell into numerous
compartments, each with its own specialized
function.
− They act as surfaces that hold enzymes.

© Don W. Fawcett/Photo Researchers, Inc.

 Membrane Composition (1 of 3)
• Biological membranes
are composed of
proteins and a
phospholipid bilayer.
− Intrinsic proteins are at
least partially immersed
in the lipid bilayer.
− Extrinsic proteins are
located outside the
membrane.
 Membrane Composition (2 of 3)
• In the fluid mosaic membrane, some
proteins diffuse laterally and others are
bound to
adjacent proteins.
• Oligosaccharides can be bound to
intrinsic proteins, converting them into
glycoproteins.
Membrane Composition (3 of 3)
 Membranes: Properties of
Membranes (1 of 3)
• Growth—additional membrane molecules can
be incorporated into existing membranes.
• Transport of material
− Vesicles—membrane “bubbles” that can carry
materials with the cytoplasm
− Exocytosis and endocytosis
• Permeability—all biological membranes are
selectively permeable.
− Allows for compartmentalization
• Dynamic—constantly changing in response to
age and environment
Membranes: Properties of
Membranes (2 of 3)
Membranes: Properties of
Membranes (3 of 3)
 Membrane Permeability
• Membranes are more permeable to hydrophobic
substances than anything carrying an electric charge.
• Movement of charged substances is assisted by large
intrinsic proteins that span the membrane.
− Facilitated diffusion
• Molecular pumps bind to a molecule on one side of the
membrane, change shape, and release the molecule on
the other side—requires energy.
− Active transport
 Basic Cell Types
• All cells are either prokaryotic or
eukaryotic.
• Prokaryotic cells are structurally more
simple than eukaryotic cells.
− They are found in domains Bacteria and
Archaea.
• Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-
bound nucleus and organelles.
− They are found in plants, animals, fungi, and
protists.
 Plant Cells: Structures (1 of 2)
• Protoplasm
− A mass of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and
water within a cell
− Includes organelles but not the cell wall
• Plasma membrane
− The selectively permeable membrane that
covers the protoplasm
− Located inside of the cell wall
Plant Cells: Structures (2 of 2)
 Plant Cell: Nucleus
• The nucleus stores the
organism’s genetic
information.
• Is surrounded by the
nuclear envelope.
− Composed of two
membranes: outer and
inner membranes.
− Contains small holes
called nuclear pores. © Dr Kari Lounatmaa/Photo Researchers, Inc.
 Plant Cell: Nucleus
• The nucleus holds
nucleoplasm, consisting
of DNA, enzymes, histone
proteins, RNAs, and
water.
− Contains nucleoli, where
ribosomes are made and
partially assembled.
− Occupies up to 50% of the
cell volume.
 Plant Cell: Central Vacuole
• The central vacuole has a
single membrane, the
tonoplast.
− Stores water, salts,
crystals, starch, protein
bodies, and other granules.
− Critical for cell
enlargement.
− Recycles monomers by
taking in old, impaired
organelles and using
digestive enzymes to break
them down.
 Plant Cell: Mitochondria (1 of 2)
• Mitochondria are the site of cellular
respiration.
− Have an outer and inner membrane.
− Inner membrane folds forming cristae
increasing surface area.
− Have their own circular DNA resembling that
of prokaryotes.
− Can divide or enlarge as needed.
Plant Cell: Mitochondria (2 of 2)
 Plant Cell: Plastids
• Plastids have an inner
and outer membrane
and an inner fluid called
the stroma.
− Includes chloroplasts.
− Diverse metabolisms
take place in other plastid
classes.
− Contain their own circular Courtesy of Dr. Constantin Craciun, Babes-Bolyai University

DNA resembling that of

prokaryotes.
 Plant Cell: Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are
responsible for
photosynthesis and
contain chlorophyll.
− Membrane sheets
called thylakoids
project into the
stroma.
− They can form
stacks of vesicles
called grana.
 Plant Cell: Amyloplasts
• Amyloplasts are
starch-storing
plastids.
• Occur in non-
photosynthetic
areas of the plant.
 Plant Cell: Other Plastids
• Chromoplasts store bright
lipid pigments found in
some fruits and flowers.
• Leucoplasts are large,
unpigmented plastids
involved in fat and lipid
synthesis.
• Phytoferritin is a plant
protein attached to stored
iron that is almost
exclusively stored in
plastids.
 Plant Cell: Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are the site of protein
synthesis.
− Occur in the cytoplasm.
− Are aggregates of 3 molecules of ribosomal
RNA and ~50 types of protein.
− Bound together by the messenger RNA,
forming a cluster called a polysome.
 Plant Cell: ER (1 of 2)
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system
of narrow tubes and sheets of membrane
within the cytoplasm.
• Important in both manufacture and
transport of molecules.
• Two forms:
− Rough (covered with ribosomes)
− Smooth (involved in lipid synthesis and
membrane assembly)
 Plant Cell: ER (2 of 2)

Courtesy of R. Fulginiti, University of Texas, Austin

 Plant Cell: Dictyosomes
• Dictyosomes are stacks of
thin vesicles held together
in an array that processes
materials to be secreted.
− Have a forming face where
ER vesicles accumulate.
− And a maturing face where
vesicles are released after
the contents are processed.

Courtesy of H. Mollenhauer, Texas A&M University

 Plant Cells
• Endomembrane system consists of all
the cell membranes except for the inner
membranes of mitochondria and plastids.
• Cytosol is the clear substance of the
cytoplasm and is composed of water,
enzymes, and other chemicals.
 Plant Cells: Microbodies
• Microbodies are small,
spherical bodies that
isolate reactions that
produce or use
hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).
− Peroxisomes detoxify
by-products of
photosynthesis.
− Glyoxysomes are
© E.H. Newcomb & S.E. Frederick/Biological Photo Service

involved in converting
stored fats into sugars.
 Plant Cells: Cytoskeleton (1 of 2)
• Microtubules are structural
elements of the cell that act
as a “cytoskeleton.”
− The means of motility for
organelles and whole cells.
− Composed of two types of
protein with a globular
tertiary structure: alpha-
tubulin and beta-tubulin.
− Separate chromatids during
cell division.
 Plant Cells: Cytoskeleton (2 of 2)
• Microfilaments are another component of
the cytoskeleton.
• Assemblies of a globular protein called
actin.
− Involved in structure and movement
 Plant Cells: Storage Products
• Plants store a variety of products.
− Starch is sometimes converted into lipids
and stored as large oil droplets.
− Crystals of calcium oxalate or calcium
carbonate.
− Silica, tannins, or phenols.
− Since there is no excretory mechanism,
some of these products are simply stored
waste.

Courtesy of G. Montenegro, Universidad Católica, Santiago, Chile

 Plant Cells: Cell Wall (1 of 3)
• Majority of plant cells have cell walls
(except some sperm cells).
• Not only provides strength and protection
but is also a site of considerable
metabolism.
• Primarily composed of
− Cellulose
− Hemicellulose
− Pectins
 Plant Cells: Cell Wall (2 of 3)
• Parallel cellulose molecules crystallize into
microfibrils, which cover the plasma membrane.
− Cellulose microfibrils are bound together by other
polysaccharides called hemicelluloses.
− The wall of one cell is glued to the walls of adjacent
cells by the middle lamella composed of pectins.
• Plant cells have a thin primary cell wall.
• Cells requiring more strength may form a
secondary, lignified cell wall between the
primary wall and the plasma membrane.
Plant Cells: Cell Wall (3 of 3)
 Associations of Cells (1 of 4)
• Cells of multicellular organisms interact and
must communicate.
− Interacting cells sense that they are part of a larger
organism and identify how they should differentiate.
− This requires extensive intercellular communication.
• Cells can secrete messenger compounds.
• Plant cells cannot communicate via direct
physical contact.
− In plants the cell wall and middle lamella are a
barrier.
− Plasmodesmata allow direct communication.
 Associations of Cells (2 of 4)
• Plasmodesmata are small channels that
connect adjacent cells.
− The plasma membrane passes through them
and creates a contiguous membrane from
cell to cell.
− A small stream of the cystol and a section of
the ER also pass through the
plasmodesmata.
− These occur singly or in clusters called
primary pit fields.
Associations of Cells (3 of 4)

Courtesy of W. W. Thomson and M. Lazzard, University of California, Riverside

 Associations of Cells (4 of 4)
• Plasmodesmata connect
protoplasts to create the
symplast.
• Many cells do not abut each
other tightly, so there is
intercellular space between.
− All intercellular space and
cell walls together are called
the apoplast.
• The symplast and apoplast
together make up the entire
plant.