QUIRINO STATE

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS

UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING

flow of water into

and through the soil

Group 1
Ice breaker
three phases of hydrologic cycle

Infiltration Evaporation Transpiration

INFILTRATION
Infiltration is the entry of
water into the soil. It is
the sole source of soil
water to sustain the
growth of plants and of
the groundwater supply of
wells, springs and
streams.
 EVAPORATIO
Evaporation is a process
N
by which water is
returned to the air from a
liquid to gaseous state.
Evaporation may occur
either from the water
surface or from water on
soil particles. It is
important in water
conservation
consideration.
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is
evaporation from plants.
About three-fourths of the
total precipitations on the
land return directly to the
atmosphere by
evaporation or
transpiration.
three phases of hydrologic cycle
Infiltration
Evaporation Transpiration
 Infiltration
Infiltration process

Infiltration Rate

Factors influencing the

infiltration rate

Measurement of
Infiltration

Predicting Infiltrati
on

Infiltration Indices
 Infiltration
process
Infiltration is the process where
water seeps into the soil after
it falls as rain or is applied
through irrigation. Instead of
running off the surface, the
water moves downward into
the ground.
Infiltration can be visualized by
pouring water into a glass filled
with dry powdered soil, slightly
tamped. The water seeps into
the soil; the color of the soil
becomes darker as it is wetted
(Figure -->).
 Infiltration Rate

Figure 2.2a The same amount of Figure 2.2b After one hour the water
water is supplied to each glass has infiltrated in the sand, while some
water is still ponding on the clay
The infiltration rate of a soil is the velocity at which water can seep into it. It
is commonly measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that the soil
can absorb in an hour.
An infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water layer of 15 mm on the
surface of the soil will take one hour to infiltrate (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3 Soil with an infiltration rate of 15

mm/hour
A range of values for infiltration rates is given below:
Low infiltration rate --------- less than 15 mm/hour
medium infiltration rate ------ 15 to 50 mm/hour
high infiltration rate --------- more than 50 mm/hour
The one-dimensional flow of water through a saturated homogenous soil
can be computed by the Darcy equation:

𝑞 = 𝐾ℎ 𝐴/ 𝐿 (2-1)

𝑞 = the flow rate (L3/T)

where:
𝐾 = hydraulic conductivity of the flow medium (L/T)
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of flow (L2)
ℎ = head or potential causing flow (L)
𝐿 = length of flow path (L)
Problem Solving:
Water flows through a homogeneous, saturated soil sample with a hydraulic
conductivity of 0.001 m/s. The cross-sectional area of the soil sample is 0.2
m², and the length of the soil column is 1 m. If the difference in hydraulic
head is 0.5 m, determine the flow rate QQQ.
Given:
• K = 0.001 m/s
• A = 0.2m²
• Δh = 0.5m

𝑞 = 𝐾ℎ 𝐴/ 𝐿
• L = 1m
Problem Solving:

Since the calculated infiltration rate is 360 mm/hr, this indicates a

high infiltration rate. (more than 50mm/hr)
Where infiltration is through two layers, such as the topsoil and the subsoil,
the average hydraulic conductivity K can be computed from:

(2-2)

𝐿 = total length of flow through all layers (L)

where:
subscripts 1 & 2 = the soil layers
Infiltration into unsaturated soil is defined by the differential equation:

(2-3)

𝜃 = the moisture content in volume of water per unit volume of soil

where:
𝐾 = the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (L/T)
𝑔 = gravitational constant (L/T2)
∅ = the capillary potential (L)
𝑧 = the coordinate in the vertical direction (L)
 factors influencing infiltration rate
1. Soil Texture
Coarse textured soils have
mainly large particles in between
which there are large pores. On the
other hand, fine textured soils have
mainly small particles in between
which there are small pores (Figure
2.4).

Figure 2.4. Infiltration rate and soil texture

2. The soil moisture content
The water infiltrates faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is
dry, than when it is wet (Figure 2.5). As a consequence, when irrigation
water is applied to a field, the water at first infiltrates easily, but as the
soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate decreases.

after
one hour

Figure 2.5. Infiltration rate and soil moisture

content
3. The soil structure
Generally speaking, water infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate)
into granular soils but very slowly (low infiltration rate) into massive
and compact soils.
Because the farmer can influence the soil structure (by means of
cultural practices), he can also change the infiltration rate of his soil.

4. Vegetation
Surface sealing can be greatly reduced by vegetation. In general,
vegetative cover and surface condition have more influence on
infiltration rates than do the soil type and texture. The protective cover
may be grasses or other close growing vegetation as well as mulches.
It has been shown that when infiltration rates are determined for soil
protected by vegetation and the vegetation is removed, surface sealing
occurs and infiltration drops.
5. Other Factors
Other factors affecting infiltration include land slope, antecedent
moisture, and water temperature (a special case being frozen soil).
Soil water generally reduces or limits the infiltration rate.
The reduction is due in large part to the fact that water causes some
of the colloids in the soil to swell thereby reduces both the pore
space and the rate of water movement. In a completely saturated
soil underlain with an impervious layer or layers, infiltration will be
zero.
 Measurement of infiltration
Infiltrometer is a device used to measure the rate of water infiltration
into soil or other porous media.

1.Single Ring Infiltrometer -measures how water infiltrates into the

soil. A metal ring is driven into the ground, and water is added in
two ways:
a. Constant Head – The water level is kept
the same using a Mariotte’s bottle. This
ensures water enters the soil at a steady
rate, matching the soil’s infiltration
capacity and preventing runoff.
b. Falling Head – Water is poured into the
ring and allowed to naturally decrease
over time. The operator measures how
much water soaks into the soil within a set
time. This helps determine the soil’s
ability to absorb water (hydraulic
conductivity).
2. The double-ring infiltrometer measures how fast water soaks into
the soil. It uses two rings:

a. Inner ring – This is where the actual infiltration

measurement happens.
b. Outer ring – Helps control water
movement, ensuring most water from
the inner ring flows downward (one-
dimensional flow), making data analysis
easier.
Water can be supplied in constant head
(steady water level) or falling head
(water level decreases over time). The
operator records how much water
infiltrates into the soil over time.
Problems with Infiltrometers
(1) The pounding of the infiltrometer into the ground
deforms the soil causing cracks and increasing the
measured infiltration capacity.
(2) Natural rainfall reaches terminal velocity. Also natural
droplet sizes differ with different types of storms. Pouring
water from a measuring cup however loses this
momentum and variance.
(3) With single ring infiltrometers, water spreads laterally
as well as vertically and the analysis is more difficult.
 Predicting infiltration
Infiltration data is usually shown in a graph with infiltration rate (y-
axis) and time (x-axis).
The infiltration curve can be expressed by:

(2-4)

Where:
f = infiltration capacity or the maximum rate at which soil under
a given condition can take water through its surface (L/T)
fc= constant infiltration capacity as tapproaches infinity (L/T)
fo= infiltration capacity at the onset of infiltration (L/T)
k = a positive constant for a given soil and initial condition
(L/T)
t = time (T)
Figure 2.6 The Horton’s Infiltration
Curve

Table 2.1 Typical Values of Parameters Used in Horton's Equation

 infiltration indices
The average value of infiltration is called Infiltration index.

1.Φ index
The Φ index is the average
infiltration rate above which rainfall
turns into runoff. It represents the
portion of rainfall lost due to
interception, depression storage, and
infiltration.

Figure 2.7 Hyetograph

2. W index
This is the average infiltration rate during the time when rainfall intensity
exceeds the infiltration rate.
The indices are mathematically expressed as:

(2-5)

(2-6)

Where:
P = total storm precipitation, cm
R = total surface run-off, cm
Ia = initial losses, cm
te = elapsed time period, hr
three phases of hydrologic cycle
Infiltration
Evaporation Transpiration
three phases of hydrologic cycle
Evaporation
Infiltration Transpiration
three phases of hydrologic cycle
Evaporation
Infiltration Transpiration
 evaporation
WHAT is Evaporation

Types of Evaporation

Measurement of Evap
oration
WHAT IS EVAPORATION?
• Water is removed from the
Earth's surface to the
atmosphere through two
mechanisms: evaporation and
transpiration
• Evaporation converts liquid
water into water vapor and
removes it from the
evaporating surface. This
process occurs on various
surfaces like lakes, rivers,
pavements, soils, and wet
vegetation. Direct solar
radiation and ambient air
temperature provide energy
for this process.
 types of evaporation
1.Soil evaporation
• It is an evaporation from
water stored in the pores of
the soil i.e., soil moisture.
2.Canopy evaporation
• It is evaporation from tree
canopy.
Total evaporation from a
catchment or an area is the
summation of both soil and
canopy evaporation.
 measurement of evaporation
The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is
estimated by the following methods:
1.Evaporimeters. Water containing
pans which are exposed to the
atmosphere and loss of water by
evaporation measured in them in
the regular intervals.
a. Class A Evaporation Pan
b. ISI Standard pan
c. Colorado sunken pan
d. USGS Floating pan
A. Demerits of Evaporation pan
a) Pan differs in the heat-storing capacity and heat transfer from
the sides and bottom.
Result: reduces the efficiency (sunken pan and floating pan
eliminates this problem).
b)The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind
action over the surface.
c)The heat-transfer characteristics of the pan material are different
from that of the reservoir.
B. Pan Coefficient (Cp)
For accurate measurements from evaporation pan a coefficient is introduce,
known as pan coefficient (Cp).

Lake evaporation = Cp x pan evaporation

Table 2.2 Pans and their Pan Coefficients

2. Empirical Formulae
Many evaporation formulas for free-water surfaces are based on Dalton’s
law:

(2-5)

Where:
E = rate of evaporation
C = constant
es = saturated vapor pressure at the temperature of the
water surface, in mm Hg
ed= actual vapor pressure of the air (relative humidity),
mm Hg
Rohwer (1931) evaluated the constant in Eq. 2-5 as:

(2-6)
Where:
W = average wind velocity in km/h at a height of 0.15 m
p = atmospheric pressure, in mm Hg at 0OC.

With these units E is in mm/day. To find the evaporation from reservoirs,

the calculated E should be multiplied by 0.77.
Meyer (1942) evaluated the constant for pans and shallow ponds (E as
mm/month),
(2-7)
And for small lakes and reservoirs,

(2-8)
3. Analytical Method (Water Budget Method)
This is the simplest analytical method:

(2-9)

Where:
P = daily precipitation; Vis = daily surface inflow into the lake
Vig = daily groundwater flow
Vos = daily surface outflow from the lake
Vog = daily seepage outflow
EL = daily lake evaporation
ds= increase the lake storage in a day
TL = daily transportation loss.
three phases of hydrologic cycle
Evaporation
Infiltration Transpiration
three phases of hydrologic cycle
Transpiration
Infiltration Evaporation
 transpiration
What is Transpiration

Basic Method

Evapotranspiration

Types of ET

Factors that affect ET

Methods in Estimating
ET
what is transpiration?

Transpiration is the process of

vaporizing liquid water in plant
tissues and removing it to the
atmosphere.
It is primarily lost through
stomata, small openings on the
leaf where gases and water vapor
pass. The water, along with some
nutrients, is taken up by the roots
and transported through the plant.
 basic method
Basic Method predicting evaporation and evapotranspiration can be
group into three categories:
• Mass transfer -Thornthwaite and Holzman (1942) proposed a method
to measure wind velocity and humidity at multiple elevations,
recognizing that water moves away from evaporating and transpiring
surfaces due to turbulent air mixing and vapor pressure gradient.
• Energy balance -The Penman (1956) approach is a practical
calculation method that uses energy balance methods to measure
the net radiation or heat supplied for water evaporation, despite the
fact that no temperature change occurs.
• Empirical Method-The approach, based on experience and field
research, assumes that evaporation energy is proportional to
temperature, as proposed by Blaney and Criddle (1950) and
Thornthwaite (1948) in equations.
 evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the
simultaneous process of
transpiration by plants and
evaporation from the soil or free
water surface.
TRANSPIRATION
It is influenced by the fraction of
solar radiation reaching the soil EVAPORATIO
surface. As the crop grows and N
covers more ground, the
fraction decreases, with soil
evaporation predominant in
small crops and transpiration
becoming the main process.
 EVAPOTRANSPIRATIO
Evapotranspiration are required
N
for determining irrigation
requirements for crops as well as
water storage in ponds and
TRANSPIRATION reservoirs. High
EVAPORATIO
evapotranspiration from grasses
N are beneficial for drainage
because of the increased
capacity of the soil for storing
water.
 TYPES OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
1. Potential Evapotranspiration is the rate of ET from a
well-watered cropped field or where there is no limitation
in water availability.
2. Actual Evapotranspiration refers to the amount of
water actually evapotranspired from a soil-water-plant
system where water supply is limiting (usually below field
capacity)
 FACTORS AFFECTING ET
• Weather parameters Weather parameters like radiation, air
temperature, humidity, and wind speed influence
evapotranspiration. Procedures assess evaporation rates based
on these parameters, with reference crop evapotranspiration
(ET) representing evapotranspiration from a standardized
vegetated surface as an expression.
• Crop Factors Evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-
managed fields should be evaluated considering crop type,
variety, and development stage. Differences in resistance to
transpiration, crop height, roughness, reflection, ground cover,
and rooting characteristics result in different ET levels under
identical environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration
under standard conditions (ETc) refers to evaporating demand.
• Management and Environmental Conditions. Soil salinity, poor
fertility, fertilizer application, hard soil horizons, disease control, and
poor soil management can limit crop development and reduce
evapotranspiration. Other factors to consider include ground cover,
plant density, and soil water content. Soil water content affects ET
primarily by water deficit and soil type. Overwatering can cause
water logging, damaging roots and inhibiting respiration, while too
much water can lead to water logging and root water uptake.

The assessment of transpiration rate (ET) in an orchard should

consider various management practices that affect climatic and crop
factors.
Cultivation practices and irrigation methods can alter microclimate,
crop characteristics, and soil wetting. Windbreaks, well-designed
drip or trickle irrigation systems, mulches, and anti-transpirants can
significantly impact ET rates.
These practices can help reduce soil evaporation, water losses, and
transpiration rate in young orchards with widely spaced trees.
 METHODS IN ESTIMATING ET
1.Blaney-Criddle Method. It is an empirical method that is widely used
for determining ET from climatological and irrigation data.

(2-10)

where:
u = monthly evapotranspiration (mm)
k = monthly ET coefficient or crop coefficient
T = mean monthly temperature (oC)
p = monthly percent of total daytime hours of year (monthly
daytime
hours x 100/total annual daytime hours)
2. Penman Method. It is a method of estimating ET from a free-
water surface by examining the energy balance at the water
surface.
(2-11a)
where:
Rn = net radiant energy available at the earth’s surface
E = energy used in evaporating water
A = energy used in heating air
S = energy used in heating the water
C = energy used in heating the surrounding of the water

The energy used in heating the water and its container could be
neglected and that the evaporation of water could be predicted:

(2-11b)
Combination of this equation with Dalton’s law (Eq. 3.5) results in
equation for evapotranspiration. The equation for well-watered grass or
reference Eto (Penman, 1963) and converted to SI units (Jensen et al,
1990):
(2-12)
The following equations and constants were summarized from Jensen et al.
(1990). Values for can be obtained from:

(2-12)
3. Empirical Solar Radiation Method
Jensen and Haise (1963), and Jensen (1966) presented an energy-
balance approach to estimate evapotranspiration that is simpler in
application than Penman’s equation.
Problem Solving
Problem 2.1 Compute the daily evaporation from water surface if
the wind speed is 32 km/h (20mph) at 0.15 m height, water and air
temperature are both 29oC (80oF) and the relative humidity of air
is 50 percent. Atmospheric pressure is 757mm Hg(29.8in.Hg). How
would your computed value compare with evaporation from dry
soil surface? From a class A weather Bureau pan?
Problem Solving
Problem 2.2 Assuming that Horton infiltration Eq. 3.4 is valid,
determine the constant infiltration rate if fo = 50 mm/h (2.0iph), f
at 10min is 13mm/h(0.5iph), and k = 12.9. What is the infiltration
rate at 20min?
Problem Solving
Problem 2.3 Using Penmans’ equation, determine the
evapotranspiration for corn during May at 40o North Latitude,
assuming mean minimum, maximum and dew-point temperatures
of 17oC (63oF), 24oC (75oF), and 10oC (50oF), respectively; 60
percent of possible sunshine is received; 3.7 m/s mean wind speed;
283 m elevation; and negligible heat flux to the soil.
Problem Solving
 Reference

Barfield, R.C. (1981). Applied Hydrology and

Sedimentology for Disturbed Areas. Oklahoma Technical
Press.
Chow, V. T. (1959). Handbook of Applied Hydrology.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Chow, V.T. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Schwab, G.O., D.D. Fangmeier, W. J. Elliot and R. K.
Frevert (1993). Soil and Water Conservation Engineering
(4th edition). John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.
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