Introduction to Set Theory

Sets
 Definition. A Set is any well defined collection of

objects.  Definition. The elements of a set are the objects in a set.  Notation. Usually we denote sets with upper-case letters, elements with lower-case letters. The following notation is used to show set membership.  x A means that x is a member of the set A.  x A means that x is not a member of the set A.

Ways of Describing Sets

 List the elements

A={1,2,3,4,5,6}
 Give a verbal description  "A is the set of all integers from 1 to 6, inclusive".  Give a mathematical inclusion rule
A!_ Integers x 1 e x e 6a

Some Special Sets

 The Null Set or Empty Set. This is a set with no

elements, often symbolized by

 The Universal Set. This is the set of all elements

currently under consideration, and is often symbolized by

Membership Relationships
 Definition. Subset.

A B

A is a subset of B

 We say A is a subset of B if , i.e., x A x B

all the members of A are also members of B. The notation for subset is very similar to the notation for less than or equal to, and means, in terms of the sets, included in or equal to.

Membership Relationships
Definition. Proper Subset.
A B A is a proper subset of B

We say A is a proper subset of B if all the members of A are also members of B, but in addition there exists at least one element c such that c B but c A . The notation for subset is very similar to the notation for less than, and means, in terms of the sets, included in but not equal to.

Combining Sets Set Union

A B
 A union B is the set of all elements that

are in A, or B, or both.
 This is similar to the logical or operator.

Combining Sets Set Intersection

A B
 A intersect B is the set of all elements that are in

both A and B.
 This is similar to the logical and

Set Complement

A
 A complement, or not A is the set of all

elements not in A.  The complement operator is similar to the logical not, and is reflexive, that is,

A! A

Set Difference

AB
 The set difference A minus B is the set of

elements that are in A, with those that are in B subtracted out. Another way of putting it is, it is the set of elements that are in A, and not in B, so

A B ! A B

Examples
= {1,2,3,4,5,6} A = {1,2,3} B = {3,4,5,6} A B={3}

A B ={1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,2}

BA={4,5,6}

Venn Diagrams
 Venn Diagrams use topological areas to stand for

sets.

Venn Diagrams & Set Algebra

Chapter 1

If all the elements in a set A also are contained in another set B, we say that A is a subset of B, denoted by A B. It is always true that A . Some of these sets are depicted using figures called the Venn diagrams:

Event A: the shaded area

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Event B is a subset of Event A

Venn Diagrams & Set Algebra

Chapter 1

 The union of two sets A and B, denoted by AB, is a new set

consisting of all elements that are either in A or in B or in both A and B, i.e., AB = {a | a A or a B}  The intersection of A and B, denote by AB, is a new set containing all elements that are both in A and in B, i.e., AB = {a | a A and a B }
AB

AB

AB: the shaded area

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AB: the shaded area

Venn Diagrams & Set Algebra

Chapter 1

 The complement of A, denoted by Ac, consists of all outcomes

in S that are not in A;  The difference of A and B, denoted by A B, is defined as a new set that consists of all elements in A but not in B. Clearly, A B = ABc.

Ac: the shaded area

A-B: the darker shaded area

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Venn Diagrams & Set Algebra

Chapter 1

 The notions of union and intersection can be extended to more

than two sets. For example, ABC = {a | a A or a B or a C } ABC = {a | a A and a B and a C}

ABC: all shaded areas

ABC: the darkest area B

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Chapter 1

Venn Diagrams & Set Algebra

 Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no

elements in common. In probability context they are called mutually exclusive sets.

A and B are not mutually exclusive

A and B are mutually exclusive

Example 1.5. An experiment consists of tossing two dice. The sample space thus consists of 36 points: {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), . . . , (6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}, or in short, S = {(i, j) | i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
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Venn Diagrams & Set Algebra

 Important laws of sets

Chapter 1

A(BC) = (AB)C and A(BC) = (AB)C (Associative Law) AB = BA and AB = BA (Commutative Law) A(BC) = (AB)(AC) and A(BC) = (AB)(AC) (Distribution Law). A = A, A = A, AAc = , and AAc = .
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Venn Diagrams & Set Algebra

 Other obvious but useful equations include:  (Ac) c = A, c  c = , = ,  AA = A, AA = A, A = ,  A = ,  A(AB) = A,  A(AB) = A.

Chapter 1

 De Morgan's law: (AB)c = AcBc and (AB)c = AcBc

(AB)c = Green Area AcBc = Green Area

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Some Test Questions

A J ! ?

Some Test Questions

A A!?

Some Test Questions

A J ! ?

Some Test Questions

A A!?

Some Test Questions

 If

A B
then

A B !?

Some Test Questions

 If

A B
then

A B ! ?

Some Test Questions

 In a class of 50 college freshmen, 30 are studying

BASIC, 25 studying PASCAL, and 10 are studying both. How many freshmen are studying either computer language?

Some Test Questions

 In a class of 50 college freshmen, 30 are studying

BASIC, 25 studying PASCAL, and 10 are studying both. How many freshmen are studying either computer language?

Some Test Questions

 Is it true that (A B) (B C) = A C?  Show that (A B) C = (A C) (B C)  Is it true that A (B C) = (A B) C?  Is it true that (A B) (A B) = A?

Some Test Questions

 If A={a,b,c,d} and B={c,a,e,f}

A-B=? B-A=? (A-B) (B-A)=?

Some Test Questions

 If

={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} A={1,2,4,6,9}

Then, Ac = ?