ME3792 Computer Integrated

Manufacturing
Unit-II
Automated Manufacturing Systems
AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Automated production line – system configurations, work part transfer

mechanisms – Fundamentals of Automated assembly system – System
configuration, Part delivery at workstations – Design for automated assembly –
Overview of material handling equipments – Consideration in material handling
system design – The 10 principles of Material handling. Conveyor systems –
Types of conveyors – Operations and features. Automated Guided Vehicle system
– Types &applications – Vehicle guidance technology – Vehicle management and
safety. Storage system performance – storage location strategies – Conventional
storage methods and equipments – Automated storage/Retrieval system and
Carousel storage system Deadlocks in Automated manufacturing systems –
Petrinet models – Applications in Dead lock avoidance – smart manufacturing –
Industry 4.0 – Digital manufacturing – Virtual manufacturing
 Automated Production Line- Defined
• An automated production line consists of multiple
workstations that are automated and linked together by a
work handling system that transfers parts from one station
to the next.
(i.e., difficult to alter the sequence and content of the
processing operations once the line is built.
 Disadvantage of Automated Production Line
• The disadvantage of an automated production line is that it
is difficult to reuse the equipment when demand for the
product decreases or when the user company has
overestimated the demand and the line is underutilized.

• Accordingly, many automated lines today are designed with

flexible workstations, such as CNC (computer numerical
control) machining centers, so that the stations can be used
in future automated lines.
 Automated Production Line- Defined
• Sequential Processing: Raw part enters, processing steps
are performed sequentially as it moves through the stations.
• Inspection & Manual Stations: Intermediate quality
checks via inspection stations, manual stations for complex
operations.
• Different Operations at Each Station: Every station
performs a distinct operation to complete the work unit.
• Simultaneous Processing: Multiple parts processed at the
same time, one at each station.
• Line Capacity: Simple lines have one part per station,
while complex lines may include temporary parts storage
between stations.
• Cycle Operations: Operates in cycles (processing +
transfer time); slowest station sets the pace.
 Work Part Transport -Classification
The work part transport system moves parts between stations
on the line. The mechanisms are categorized under three
criteria
(1) Synchronous vs Asynchronous Transport (Based on work
speed in each station)
(2) Palletized vs Free Transfer line (Based on geometry of
part)
(3)Line vs Rotary indexing mechanism (Based on system
configuration)
 Work Part Transport Mechanisms
The work part transport system moves parts between stations on the line. Transport
mechanisms used on automated production lines are usually either synchronous or
asynchronous but rarely continuous.
• Synchronous Transport: In this system, all parts move together at the same speed
through each workstation. Each station processes its part for the same amount of
time, and when all the stations finish, the parts move to the next station
simultaneously.
– Example: Consider a production line assembling smartphones. Each phone takes exactly
10 minutes at each station (e.g., screen attachment, battery installation, software setup).
Once all stations complete their tasks in 10 minutes, the conveyor moves the phones to
the next station, and the process repeats. All parts move together at the same pace.
• Asynchronous Transport: In this system, parts move independently between
stations. Parts don't need to wait for every station to finish before moving to the
next. Instead, parts can move as soon as they’re done with a station, and WIPs are
used to hold parts that are waiting for the next available station. This allows for
flexibility in handling variations in processing times at different stations.
– Example: In the same smartphone assembly line, let’s say the screen attachment takes 8
minutes, but battery installation takes 12 minutes. With asynchronous transport, once a
screen is attached, the phone can move immediately to the next station, or wait in a
buffer if that station is still busy. This way, the line isn't slowed down by the station with
the longest processing time, making the system more flexible.
 Advantages of Asynchronous vs Synchronous
Transport
(1) they are more flexible,
(2) they permit queues of parts to form between workstations to act as storage
buffers and
(3) it is easier to rearrange or expand the production line.

• These advantages come at a higher first cost.

 Work part Transport- Classification
Depending on the geometry of the work part to be
processed, work part transport is classified as
(1) Palletized Transfer Line: A production line
using pallet fixtures for handling parts; ensures
accurate part placement at each station.
• Pallet Fixtures are work-holding devices used
to precisely position parts relative to their base
during processing.
• Pallets accurately locate parts at each
workstation, ensuring precision, especially in
machining operations with tight tolerances.
• Reuse of Pallets: Pallet fixtures are returned to
the start of the line for repeated use.
(2) Free Transfer Line:
• In a free transfer line, parts are moved directly
from one workstation to the next without the
use of pallet fixtures.
• Pallet fixtures are used in more complex
systems to hold parts in specific orientations
and ensure accuracy and hence this free transfer
Work part Transport- Classification
System Configurations- Automated Production Line
Work flow can be in 3 configurations (1) in-line, (2) segmented in-line, and (3) rotary.
• The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of stations in a straight line
arrangement.
• This configuration is common for machining big workpieces, such as automotive
engine blocks, engine heads, and transmission cases.
• Because these parts require a large number of operations, a production line with
many stations is needed.
• The in-line configuration can accommodate a large number of stations.
• In-line systems can also be designed with integrated storage buffers along the flow
path
System Configurations- Automated Production Line
System Configurations- Automated Production Line
System Configurations- Automated Production Line
System Configurations- Automated Production Line
System Configurations- Automated Production Line
 Linear Transfer Systems
• Material transport systems in automated production lines typically provide linear
motion.
• These systems include powered roller, belt, chain-driven, and cart-on-track
conveyors, often used for transferring parts between stations.
• Chain or belt conveyors can offer continuous or intermittent movement using work
carriers, driven by pulleys in either a horizontal "over-and-under" or vertical
"around-the-corner" configuration.
• Belt conveyors can also allow asynchronous movement, using friction between the
belt and parts, with stopping mechanisms like pop-up pins at each station.
• Similarly, cart-on-track conveyors provide asynchronous movement with precise
positioning.

Cart-on-Track Conveyors
 Linear Transfer Systems
Machining transfer lines often use walking-beam systems, where a beam lifts parts
from stations, moves them to the next position, and lowers them for processing. This
cycle is repeated for synchronized movement across stations
 Rotary indexing mechanism
• In dial-indexing machines used for processing or assembly operations, several mechanisms
can provide the required rotational indexing motion.
• A common example is the Geneva mechanism, where a continuously rotating driver indexes
the table through partial rotations.
• Geneva mechanism is a gear mechanism that translates a continuous rotation movement into
intermittent rotary motion.
• Example: For a six-station table, each driver turn results in a 60° table rotation, or 1/6 of a
full rotation. The driver rotates for 120° to index the table, while the remaining 240° is dwell
time, during which operations on the work unit are completed.
 Rotary indexing mechanism

• The Geneva mechanism consists of a driver and a driven member (the table). The
driver rotates continuously and engages with the driven member (the table)
through slots.
• When the driver engages with one of the slots of the driven member, it moves the
table by a certain angle—in this case, 60°—to move to the next station.
• After this 120° rotation, the driver completes the rest of its full 360° rotation (the
remaining 240°). During this remaining 240°, the table remains stationary (this is
called dwell time), allowing operations to be performed on the part at that station.
Rotary indexing mechanism
Automated Assembly systems
 Automated Assembly systems
• An automated assembly system performs a sequence of automated assembly
operations to combine multiple components into a single entity. The single entity
can be a final product or a subassembly in a larger product.
• In many cases, the assembled entity consists of a base part to which other
components are attached. The components are usually joined one at a time, so the
assembly is completed progressively.
• A typical automated assembly system consists of the following subsystems: (1) one
or more workstations at which the assembly steps are accomplished, (2) parts
feeding devices that deliver the individual components to the workstation(s), and (3)
a work handling system for the assembled entity.
• In assembly systems with one workstation, the work handling system moves the
base part into and out of the station.
• In systems with multiple stations, the handling system transfers the partially
assembled base part between stations
 Video links
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zkNpQb7du_g
• https://www.youtube.com/shorts/ujO5TamTfSc
• https://www.youtube.com/shorts/VKNyJlTHjZ8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sr88WRXN_6s
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cu3-TPzFs4A
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejgLp0K0VJc
Material Transport Systems
 Overview of Material Handling
• Logistics is concerned with the acquisition, movement,
storage, and distribution of materials and products, as well
as the planning and control of these operations in order to
satisfy customer demand.

• External logistics is concerned with transportation and

related activities that occur outside of a facility. In general,
these activities involve the movement of materials between
different geographical locations.

• Internal logistics, more popularly known as material

handling, involves the movement and storage of materials
inside a given facility.
 Material Handling Equipment
The equipment can be classified into five categories:
(1) transport equipment
(2) Positioning equipment
(3) Unit load formation equipment
(4) Storage equipment
(5) identification and control equipment.

• Transport Equipment: Material transport equipment is used to move materials

inside a factory, warehouse, or other facility. The five main types of equipment
are (1) industrial trucks, (2) automated guided vehicles, (3) rail-guided vehicles,
(4) conveyors, and (5) hoists and cranes.

• Positioning Equipment: This category consists of equipment used to handle

parts and other materials at a single location: for example, loading and unloading
parts from a production machine in a work cell. Positioning is accomplished by
industrial robots that perform material handling and parts feeders in automated
assembly. Hoists used at a single location can also be included in this category.
 Material Handling Equipment
Unit Load Formation Equipment:
• The term unitizing equipment refers to (1) containers used to hold
individual items during handling and (2) equipment used to load and
package the containers.
• Containers include pallets, tote pans, boxes, baskets, barrels, and drums,
some of which are shown in Figure 10.2.
• Although seemingly mundane, containers are very important for moving
materials efficiently as a unit load, rather than as individual items.
• Pallets and other containers that can be handled by forklift equipment are
widely used in production and distribution operations.
• Most factories, warehouses, and distribution centers use forklift trucks to
move unit loads on pallets.
• A given facility must often standardize on a specific type and size of
container if it utilizes automatic transport and/or storage equipment to
handle the loads.
 Material Handling Equipment
Unit Load Formation Equipment:
 Material Handling Equipment
Unit Load Formation Equipment:
• The term unitizing equipment refers to (1) containers
used to hold individual items during handling and (2)
equipment used to load and package the containers.

• The second category of unitizing equipment includes

palletizers, which are designed to automatically load
cartons onto pallets and shrink-wrap plastic film around
them for shipping, and depalletizers, which are designed
to unload cartons from pallets.

• Other wrapping and packaging machines are also

included in this equipment category.
 Material Handling Equipment
Storage Equipment.:
• Although it is generally desirable to reduce the storage of materials in
manufacturing, it seems unavoidable that raw materials and work-in-process
spend some time in storage, even if only temporarily. And finished products are
likely to spend time in a warehouse or distribution center before being delivered
to the final customer.
• Accordingly, companies must give consideration to the most appropriate
methods for storing materials and products prior to, during, and after
manufacture.
• Storage methods and equipment can be classified into two major categories: (1)
conventional storage methods and (2) automated storage systems.
• Conventional storage methods include bulk storage (storing items in an open
floor area), rack systems (for pallets), shelving and bins, and drawer storage. In
general, conventional storage methods are labor-intensive. Human workers put
materials into storage and retrieve them from storage.
• Automated storage systems are designed to reduce or eliminate the manual labor
involved in these functions.
 Material Handling Equipment
Identification and Control Equipment:
• The scope of material handling includes keeping track of
the materials being moved and stored.
• This is usually done by affixing some kind of label to the
item, carton, or unit load that uniquely identifies it.
• The most common label used today is a bar code that can
be read quickly and automatically by bar code readers.
• This is the same basic technology used by grocery stores
and retail merchandisers.
• An alternative identification technology that is growing
in importance is RFID (for radio frequency
identification).
 Design considerations in Material Handling
• Material handling equipment is usually assembled into a
system. The system must be specified and configured to
satisfy the requirements of a particular application.
• Design of the system depends on the materials to be
handled, quantities and distances to be moved, type of
production facility served by the handling system, and other
factors, including available budget.
• The factors that influence the design of the material
handling system:
– Material Characteristics
– Flow rate, Routing, and scheduling
– Plant Layout
– Unit load Principle
 Design considerations in Material Handling
1) Material Characteristics.
• For handling purposes, materials can be classified by
the physical characteristics presented in Table 10.1
• Design of the material handling system must take these
factors into account.
• For example, if the material is a liquid that is to be
moved over long distances in great volumes, then a
pipeline is the appropriate transport means.
• But this handling method would be infeasible for
moving a liquid contained in barrels or other containers.
• Materials in a factory usually consist of solid items: raw
materials, parts, and finished or semi-finished products.
 Design considerations in Material Handling
1) Material Characteristics:
 Design considerations in Material Handling
2) Flow rate, Routing and Scheduling
• Effective material handling equipment selection requires a comprehensive
evaluation of quantities, flow rates, routing dynamics, environmental
conditions, and scheduling to optimize efficiency and minimize costs.
• Quantities and Flow Rates: The volume of materials influences the choice of
handling system. A dedicated system is suitable for large quantities, while a
shared system is ideal for smaller amounts of various materials. Flow rates,
measured in units like pieces or tons per hour, dictate whether materials are
moved individually, in batches, or continuously.
• Routing Factors: Pickup and drop-off locations, move distances, and routing
variations significantly impact costs. Longer distances increase handling
expenses, and the system must be flexible to accommodate different flow
patterns for various materials. Factors such as floor surface quality, traffic
congestion, outdoor movement, and path configuration affect the design of the
material transport system.
• Scheduling: Timely pickup and delivery are crucial for maintaining system
efficiency. Rush jobs can raise handling costs, which may be mitigated by
incorporating buffer stocks at pickup and drop-off points, allowing for some
flexibility and reducing immediate response pressures on the system.
 Design considerations in Material Handling
3) Plant Layout: The type of plant layout directly influences the choice
of material handling systems, with different layouts necessitating
specific handling equipment to optimize efficiency and productivity. In
new facilities, integrating the handling system into the layout design
allows for optimal material flow and the selection of suitable handling
equipment. However, in existing facilities, constraints such as the
arrangement of departments and equipment can limit the ability to
achieve ideal flow patterns.
There are three conventional plant layouts used in manufacturing:
• Process Layout: This layout supports the production of various parts
or products in small to medium batch sizes, requiring a flexible
handling system to accommodate variations and significant work-in-
process inventory. Common equipment includes hand trucks, forklift
trucks, and increasingly, automated guided vehicles for versatile
handling of different load configurations. Automated storage systems
may also be employed to manage in-process inventory efficiently.
 Design considerations in Material Handling
• Product Layout: Used for high-volume production of standard or
nearly identical products, such as in final assembly plants for
vehicles and appliances, this layout features a transport system
characterized by fixed routes and mechanization capable of large
flow rates. Conveyor systems are commonly utilized, and trucks
facilitate the delivery of component parts to assembly workstations
along the production flow.

• Fixed-Position Layout: In this layout, large and heavy products

remain stationary during most fabrication processes. Materials and
components must be moved to the product location, requiring large
and often mobile handling systems such as cranes, hoists, and trucks.
 Design considerations in Material Handling
4) The Unit Load Principle:
• A unit load is defined as the mass that can be moved or handled at
one time.
• A unit load may consist of a single part, a container with multiple
parts, or a pallet loaded with several containers.
• The design of the unit load should be as large as practical for the
handling system while considering safety, convenience, and
accessibility.
• This principle is extensively applied in transportation industries,
including truck, rail, and shipping, where palletized unit loads are
consolidated into larger loads for efficiency. The benefits of using
unit loads in material handling include:
– Simultaneous Handling: Multiple items can be moved together.
– Reduced Trips: The number of trips required is minimized.
– Faster Loading/Unloading: Time for these processes is decreased.
– Decreased Product Damage: Handling items in bulk lowers the risk of
damage.
 Design considerations in Material Handling
4) The Unit Load Principle:
• Utilizing unit loads contributes to lower costs and higher operational
efficiency. Containers that hold or support these materials are often
standardized in size and design for compatibility with the handling
system. Pallets are the most commonly used containers due to their
versatility, low cost, and compatibility with various material handling
equipment, such as forklift trucks. Standard pallet sizes are essential
for analyzing automated storage and retrieval systems in logistics and
manufacturing environments.
 Material handling principles
Principle 1 - PLANNING PRINCIPLE: All material handling should be the result of a
deliberate plan where the needs, performance objectives, and functional specification
of the proposed methods are completely defined at the outset.

• The plan should be developed in consultation between the planner(s) and all who will
use and benefit from the equipment to be employed.

• Success in planning large-scale material handling projects generally requires a team

approach involving suppliers, consultants when appropriate, and end user specialists
from management, engineering, computer and information systems, finance, and
operations.

• The plan should promote concurrent engineering of product, process design, process
layout, and material handling methods as opposed to independent and sequential
design practices.

• The plan should reflect the strategic objectives of the organization as well as the more
immediate needs.

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 Material handling principles
Principle 2 - STANDARDIZATION PRINCIPLE: Material handling
methods, equipment, controls, and software should be standardized
within the limits of achieving overall performance objectives and
without sacrificing needed flexibility modularity, and throughput.

• Standardization means less variety and customization in the methods

and equipment employed.

• Standardization applies to sizes of containers and other load forming

components as well as operating procedures and equipment.

• The planner should select methods and equipment that can perform a
variety of tasks under a variety of operating conditions and in
anticipation of changing future requirements.

• Standardization, flexibility, and modularity must not be incompatible.

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 Material handling principles
Principle 3 - WORK PRINCIPLE: Material handling work should be minimized
without sacrificing productivity or the level of service required of the operation.

• The measure of material handling work is flow rate (volume, weight, or count
per unit of time) multiplied by distance moved.

• Consider each pickup and set-down, or placing material in and out of storage, as
distinct moves and components of the distance moved.

• Simplifying processes by reducing, combining, shortening, or eliminating

unnecessary moves will reduce work.

• Where possible, gravity should be used to move materials or to assist in their

movement while respecting consideration of safety and the potential for product
damage.

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 Material handling principles
Principle 3 - WORK PRINCIPLE: Material handling work should
be minimized without sacrificing productivity or the level of
service required of the operation.

• The Work Principle applies universally, from mechanized material

handling in a factory to over-the-road trucking.

• The Work Principle is implemented best by appropriate layout

planning: locating the production equipment into a physical
arrangement corresponding to the flow of work. This arrangement
tends to minimize the distances that must be traveled by the
materials being processed.

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 Material handling principles
Principle 4 - ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLE: Human capabilities and
limitations must be recognized and respected in the design of material
handling tasks and equipment to ensure safe and effective operations.

• Ergonomics is the science that seeks to adapt work or working

conditions to suit the abilities of the worker.

• The material handling workplace and the equipment must be designed

so they are safe for people.

• The ergonomic principle embraces both physical and mental tasks.

• Equipment should be selected that eliminates repetitive and strenuous

manual labor and that effectively interacts with human operators and
users.

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 Material handling principles
Principle 5 - UNIT LOAD PRINCIPLE: Unit loads shall be appropriately sized
and configured in a way which achieves the material flow and inventory
objectives at each stage in the supply chain.

• A unit load is one that can be stored or moved as a single entity at one time,
such as a pallet, container, or tote, regardless of the number of individual items
that make up the load.

• Less effort and work are required to collect and move many individual items as
a single load than to move many items one at a time.

• Large unit loads are common in both pre- and post-manufacturing in the form
of raw materials and finished goods.

• Smaller unit loads are consistent with manufacturing strategies that embrace
operating objectives such as flexibility, continuous flow and just-in-time
delivery. Smaller unit loads (as few as one item) yield less in-process inventory
and shorter item throughput times.

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 Material handling principles
Principle 6 - SPACE UTILIZATION PRINCIPLE: Effective and
efficient use must be made of all available space.

• Space in material handling is three-dimensional and therefore is

counted as cubic space.

• In storage areas, the objective of maximizing storage density

must be balanced against accessibility and selectivity.

• When transporting loads within a facility, the use of overhead

space should be considered as an option. Use of overhead
material handling systems saves valuable floor space for
productive purposes.

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 Material handling principles
Principle 7 - SYSTEM PRINCIPLE: Material movement and storage activities
should be fully integrated to form a coordinated, operational system that spans
receiving, inspection, storage, production, assembly, packaging, unitizing, order
selection, shipping, transportation, and the handling of returns.

• Systems integration should encompass the entire supply chain, including

reverse logistics. It should include suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and
customers.

• Inventory levels should be minimized at all stages of production and

distribution while respecting considerations of process variability and customer
service.

• Information flow and physical material flow should be integrated and treated as
concurrent activities.

• Methods should be provided for easily identifying materials and products, for
determining their location and status within facilities and within the supply
chain,-and for controlling their movement.
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 Material handling principles
Principle 8 - AUTOMATION PRINCIPLE: Material handling operations should be
mechanized and/or automated where feasible to improve operational efficiency,
increase responsiveness, improve consistency and predictability, decrease
operating costs, and eliminate repetitive or potentially unsafe manual labor.

• In any project in which automation is being considered, pre-existing processes and

methods should be simplified and/or re-engineered before any efforts to install
mechanized or automated systems. Such analysis may lead to elimination of
unnecessary steps in the method. If the method can be sufficiently simplified, it
may not be necessary to automate the process.

• Items that are expected to be handled automatically must have standard shapes
and/or features that permit mechanized and/or automated handling.

• Interface issues are critical to successful automation, including equipment-to-

equipment, equipment-to-load, equipment-to-operator, and in-control
communications.
• Computerized material handling systems should be considered where appropriate
for effective integration of material flow and information management.
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 Material handling principles
Principle 9 - ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLE: Environmental impact and
energy consumption should be considered as criteria when designing or
selecting alternative equipment and material handling systems.

• Environmental consciousness stems from a desire not to waste natural

resources and to predict and eliminate the possible negative effects of our
daily actions on the environment.

• Containers, pallets, and other products used to form and protect unit loads
should be designed for reusability when possible and/or biodegradability after
disposal.

• Materials specified as hazardous have special needs with regard to spill

protection, combustibility, and other risks.

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Principle 10 - LIFE CYCLE COST PRINCIPLE: A thorough economic analysis

should account for the entire life cycle of all material handling equipment and
resulting systems.

• Life cycle costs include all cash flows that occur between the time the first dollar
is spent to plan a new material handling method or piece of equipment until that
method and/or equipment is totally replaced.

• Life cycle costs include capital investment, installation, setup and equipment
programming, training, system testing and acceptance, operating (labor, utilities,
etc.), maintenance and repair, reuse value, and ultimate disposal.

• A plan for preventive and predictive maintenance should be prepared for the
equipment, and the estimated cost of maintenance and spare parts should be
included in the economic analysis.

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 Material handling principles
Principle 10 - LIFE CYCLE COST PRINCIPLE: A thorough economic analysis
should account for the entire life cycle of all material handling equipment and
resulting systems.

• A long-range plan for replacement of the equipment when it becomes obsolete

should be prepared.

• Although measurable cost is a primary factor, it is certainly not the only factor in
selecting among alternatives. Other factors of a strategic nature to the
organization and that form the basis for competition in the market place should
be considered and quantified whenever possible.

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Material Transport Equipments
Parts of AGV
 Parts of AGV
AGV system contains three major components:
The vehicles: These are the mobile robots themselves, equipped to carry or tow
materials. Each vehicle is made up of several internal parts:
• Frame/Chassis: The structural foundation that supports the vehicle's
components and payload.
• Power unit: Typically consisting of rechargeable batteries, this provides the
energy for the vehicle's motors and onboard electronics.
• Drive and steering unit: This system controls the vehicle's movement and
includes motors and steering mechanisms.
• Onboard controller: A microprocessor or other logic controller that
manages the vehicle's operations and communicates with the central control
system.
• Onboard safety system: This includes features like collision avoidance
sensors (e.g., bumper sensors) and emergency stop buttons to ensure safe
operation.
• Work platform or load handling device: This is the mechanism for
interfacing with and moving the load, such as forks, conveyors, or a flat
platform.
 Parts of AGV
The guide path: This defines the layout of the routes that the vehicles follow.
Common methods include:
• Embedded wire: A wire in a floor slot that emits a magnetic field, which
the AGV's sensors follow.
• Guide tape: Magnetic or optical tape applied to the floor surface.
• Laser targets: Reflective strips mounted on walls or machines that are
detected by the AGV's rotating laser scanner.
The control system: This manages the overall AGV fleet, traffic flow, and
integration with other material handling systems. The several levels of control
are:
• Central computer control: A master system that manages traffic,
dispatches vehicles, and monitors the entire AGV fleet.
• Remote dispatch: Systems where operators use local terminals to
communicate with vehicles and manage tasks.
• Onboard control: The vehicle's local controller, which handles navigation
and task execution based on instructions from the higher-level system
Vehicle Guidance Technologies
 Vehicle Guidance Technologies
The guidance system in Automated Guided Vehicle Systems (AGVS) defines
the pathways and controls vehicle movement. Key technologies include:
1. Imbedded Guide Wires: Wires in the floor emit a magnetic field that
sensors on the vehicle follow. Steering adjusts based on sensor feedback. At
branching points, vehicles decide paths via either frequency select (different
frequencies for paths) or path switch select (turning off other branches).
2. Paint Strips: Optical sensors track painted or taped lines on the floor. This
method is practical when electrical noise affects guide wires, though it
requires maintenance.
3. Magnetic Tape: Laid on the floor, this passive guidance method is flexible
and easier to modify than guide wires.
4. Laser-Guided Vehicles (LGVs): These do not rely on floor-based pathways
but use dead reckoning and reflective beacons for navigation. Positioning is
updated using triangulation from beacons.
5. Inertial Navigation: On-board gyroscopes detect motion changes, with
magnetic transponders in the floor correcting positioning errors.
Laser-guided and inertial systems offer greater flexibility as paths are defined in
software and can be easily updated.
 Vehicle Guidance Technologies
Laser-Guided Vehicles (LGVs) Reflective Beacons:
• These are special reflective
targets, like strips of tape or
small cylinders, that are
strategically mounted on walls,
columns, and other fixed points
throughout the facility.
• The LGV has a rotating laser
scanner, typically mounted on a
mast, that sends out laser pulses.
When a pulse strikes a beacon, it
is reflected back to the scanner.
• The LGV knows the precise,
pre-mapped coordinates of each
beacon.
 Vehicle Management
Efficient vehicle management is essential for Automated Guided Vehicle
Systems (AGVS), focusing on two key aspects: traffic control and vehicle
dispatching.
1. Traffic Control: This prevents vehicle collisions and minimizes
interference. Two methods are commonly used:
1. On-board Vehicle Sensing: Sensors detect obstacles or other vehicles in front
and stop the vehicle if necessary. This is most effective on straight paths but less
so at turns or junctions.
2. Zone Control: The AGVS layout is divided into zones, and only one vehicle is
allowed in each zone at a time. Movement is controlled by a central computer to
prevent collisions and optimize traffic flow.
2. Vehicle Dispatching: Vehicles must be dispatched efficiently to meet
delivery demands. Common methods include:
1. On-board Control Panels: Manual dispatching directly from the vehicle’s
control panel.
2. Remote Call Stations: Push-buttons at stations call available vehicles to
load/unload points.
3. Central Computer Control: In automated facilities, a central computer
monitors vehicle locations and dispatches them according to a schedule or real-
 Videos
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tc4jREt6Q74
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DbVj3OwUNks
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGk_O624jeA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-CA2-kV9kc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zsdLbH9DwA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z91vlCNKrjc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0hIXA7_ldM
Conveyors
 Conveyors
• A conveyor is a mechanical apparatus for
moving items or bulk materials, usually inside a
facility.

• Conveyors are generally used when material

must be moved in relatively large quantities
between specific locations over a fixed path,
which may be in the floor, above the floor or
overhead.
7. Chain conveyors
8. Power and free overhead trolley conveyor
 Types of Conveyors
Roller conveyors:
• They consist of a series of rollers arranged perpendicular to the
direction of travel, with the load requiring a flat bottom surface
to span several adjacent rollers.
• The rollers are held in a frame elevated above the floor. Loads
move forward as the rollers rotate, and conveyors can be
powered (driven by belts or chains) or non-powered (gravity-
driven, relying on a downward slope).
• Roller conveyors are used in applications such as manufacturing,
assembly, packaging, sortation, and distribution
Skate-wheel conveyors operate similarly to roller conveyors but
use skate wheels instead of rollers, making them lighter and better
suited for lighter loads. They are often portable, used for loading
and unloading at docks.
 Types of Conveyors
• Belt conveyors feature a continuous loop of reinforced rubber
supported by rollers or sliders, driven by a powered roll. They come
in flat belts for items like pallets and cartons or troughed belts for
bulk materials such as coal and grain.
• Chain conveyors consist of chain loops running over powered
sprockets, with loads typically dragged along the pathway via bars
attached to the moving chains.
• In-floor towline conveyors use four-wheel carts powered by chains
or cables in floor trenches. The carts are towed along defined
pathways and can be disengaged for loading, unloading, or manual
movement. These are commonly used in manufacturing plants and
warehouses.
• Overhead trolley conveyors use wheeled carriages (trolleys) on an
overhead rail to carry suspended loads via hooks or baskets. The
trolleys move along a track driven by a chain or cable in a loop, with
the path defined by the track's configuration, including turns and
elevation changes. These conveyors are common in factories for
 Types of Conveyors
• Power-and-free overhead trolley conveyors add asynchronous
capability by allowing trolleys to disconnect from the drive chain,
using two tracks: the upper for the chain and the lower for the
trolleys. This enables independent trolley movement.
• Cart-on-track conveyors use individual carts on a track driven by
a spinning tube. The cart's speed and movement are controlled by
adjusting the angle between the cart’s drive wheel and the spinning
tube. This system allows high-precision positioning, used in
applications like robotic welding and mechanical assembly.
• Other conveyor types include:
– Screw conveyors: Based on the Archimedes screw, they use a rotating
screw inside a tube to move materials.
– Vibration-based conveyors: Use angular vibratory motion to propel
items.
– Vertical lift conveyors: Provide vertical motion, connecting different
levels.
–
Power-and-free overhead trolley conveyors
Power-and-free overhead trolley conveyors
Conveyor Operations and Features
 Conveyor Operations and Features
Conveyor systems can be classified into two main types based on
motion:
• Continuous conveyors: These operate at a constant velocity,
moving loads steadily along a path. Examples include belt, roller,
skate-wheel, and overhead trolley conveyors.
• Asynchronous conveyors: These feature stop-and-go motion,
allowing independent movement between stations. Examples
include power-and-free trolleys, in-floor towline, and cart-on-
track conveyors. Asynchronous systems are used for accumulating
loads, temporarily storing items, balancing production rates,
smoothing variable cycle times, and adjusting conveyor speeds.
 Conveyor Operations and Features
Conveyors are also categorized as:
• Single direction: Move loads one way from origin to
destination, commonly seen in roller, skate-wheel, belt, and
chain-in-floor conveyors.
• Continuous loop: Form a circuit, such as overhead trolley
conveyors, where empty carriers return to the load station
automatically.
• Recirculating: Store items by allowing them to stay in the
return loop for multiple revolutions, accumulating parts to
smooth loading/unloading variations.

Branching, merging, and alternate routing can be incorporated in

conveyor systems using switches, shuttles, or other mechanisms to
change pathways.
Material Storage Systems
 Storage System Performances
Storage Capacity: This is the total available space or number of storage compartments.
In many systems, materials are stored as unit loads in standardized containers (pallets or
totes), and capacity is measured by the number of unit loads the system can hold. It's
important that capacity exceeds expected demand to handle variations.
Storage Density: This refers to the actual storage space relative to total available space,
with aisles and overhead space often reducing density. High density is desirable, but it
usually compromises Accessibility, which is the ease of accessing stored items. A
balance between density and accessibility is needed.
Throughput: the rate at which the system handles storage and retrieval operations. It is
determined by transaction time, which includes picking up, traveling, and placing or
retrieving items. Dual-command cycles (handling both storage and retrieval in one trip)
can increase throughput, though this depends on demand patterns and scheduling.
Utilization: For automated systems, utilization is the percentage of time that the system
actually is used for performing S/R function compared to its availability. Ideally,
utilization should range between 80-90%. Lower utilization suggests overdesign, while
higher utilization leaves no buffer for peak periods or breakdowns.
Reliability (Availability) this is the proportion of time the system is operational
compared to scheduled working hours. Downtime can be caused by mechanical
failures, software issues, or incorrect procedures. Preventive maintenance and having
spare parts available can improve system reliability.
 Storage Location Strategies
Each item type stored in a warehouse is known as a stock-keeping-unit (SKU).
The SKU uniquely identifies that item type. The inventory records of the
storage facility maintain a count of the quantities of each SKU that are in
storage.
1. Randomized Storage: Items (SKUs) are placed in any available location
within the system. The nearest available spot is typically used, and stock is
retrieved based on a first-in, first-out (FIFO) policy. This method requires
less total space since locations are not reserved for specific SKUs.
2. Dedicated Storage: Each SKU is assigned a specific storage location
based on criteria like part number, activity level (more active SKUs are
placed near input/output points), or activity-to-space ratio. This approach
allows for quicker access and higher throughput, especially when more
frequently accessed items are stored closer to the input/output stations.
• A hybrid approach, class-based dedicated storage, combines the benefits
of both strategies. SKUs are divided into classes based on activity level,
with randomized storage within each class. This reduces space
requirements while increasing throughput by keeping more active items
closer to retrieval points.
Storage Equipment
• Bulk storage is the storage of stock in an open floor area. The stock
• is generally contained in unit loads on pallets or similar containers,
and unit loads are stacked on top of each other to increase storage
 Conventional Storage Systems
• Rack Systems provide vertical stacking of unit loads without relying
on the loads for support. Common types include:
• Pallet racks: Use horizontal beams to support pallet loads.
• Cantilever racks: Have horizontal beams cantilevered from a
central vertical frame, allowing unobstructed spans for long
materials like rods and pipes.
• Flow-through racks: Use inclined conveyor tracks instead of
beams, enabling first-in, first-out stock rotation by allowing gravity
to move unit loads from the loading side to the unloading side.
• Shelving and Bins are horizontal platforms used for storage, typically
made of steel and available in standard sizes. Bins are added to store
loose items.
• Drawer Storage helps locate items more easily by allowing drawers
to fully extend, making their contents visible. These are commonly
used for tools and maintenance items and come in various depths for
different item sizes.
 Flow Through Racks

Loading side

Unloading side
Automated Storage System
Automated Storage/ Retrieval System
Objectives and Reasons to install AS/RS
 Structure of AS/RS
• Automated storage systems divide into two general
types: (1) fixed-aisle automated storage/retrieval
systems and (2) carousel storage systems.
• A fixed-aisle AS/RS consists of a rack structure for
storing loads and a storage/retrieval machine whose
motions are linear (x–y–z motions).
• By contrast, a carousel system uses storage baskets
attached to a chain-driven conveyor that revolves
around an oval track loop to deliver the baskets to a
load/unload station.
• Both types include horizontal and vertical structures,
with the horizontal configuration being much more
common in both cases.
Components of AS/RS
the AS/RS system, enables in storage and retrieval of the unit loads
Deep Lane AS/RS
Mini-load AS/RS
Man on-board AS/ RS
The items are stored in lanes rather than bins or drawers. When an item is retrieved, it
is pushed from its lane and drops onto a conveyor for delivery to the pickup station..
The supply of items in each lane is periodically replenished, usually from the rear of
the system so that there is flow-through of items, thus permitting first-in/first-out
inventory rotation.

6) Vertical lift modules (VLM). All of the preceding AS/RS types are designed around
a fixed horizontal aisle. The same principle of using a center aisle to access loads is
used in a VLM except that the aisle is vertical. The structure consists of two columns
of trays that are accessed by an S/R machine (also called an extractor) that delivers
the trays one-by-one to a load/unload station at floor level. Vertical lift modules, some
with heights of 10 m (30 ft) or more, are capable of holding large inventories while
saving valuable floor space in the facility.
Vertical lift modules
Structure of Fixed Aisle AS/RS
Structure of Carousel Storage system
 Carousel Storage System
• A carousel storage system consists of a series of bins or
baskets attached to a chain-driven conveyor that revolves
around an oval track loop to deliver the baskets to a
load/unload station.
• The purpose of the chain conveyor is to position bins at a
load/unload station at the end of the oval.
• Most carousels are operated by a human worker at the
load/unload station.
• The worker activates the powered carousel to deliver a
desired bin to the station.
• One or more parts are removed from or added to the bin,
and then the cycle is repeated.
• Some carousels are automated by using transfer
mechanisms at the load/unload station to move loads into
A single carousel storage system has an oval rail loop that is = 40 m long and 3 m
wide. Fifty carriers are equally spaced around the oval. Suspended from each
carrier are five bins. Each bin has a volumetric capacity 0.95 m³. Carousel speed =
100 m/min. Average pick-and-deposit time for a retrieval = 20 sec. Determine (i)
volumetric capacity of the storage system and (ii) hourly retrieval rate of the
storage system.
 Dead locks in Automated Manufacturing System
In automated manufacturing systems, deadlocks refer to a situation
where two or more processes or machines are unable to proceed because
they are each waiting for the other to release a resource. This results in a
complete standstill, with none of the resources being able to continue
their tasks, leading to inefficiency and potential delays in production.
Causes of Deadlocks:
• Resource Sharing: Machines or processes may require access to the same
resources (such as a conveyor system, robot, or workstation). If one machine
holds a resource that another needs and vice versa, a deadlock can occur.
• Circular Waiting: A chain of processes is formed where each process holds
a resource that the next one in the chain needs, but none can release its
current resource until it gets the next one, causing a circular dependency.
• Non-preemption: Once a resource has been allocated to a process, it cannot
be forcibly taken away, further aggravating the deadlock situation.
• Mutual Exclusion: Some resources can only be used by one process at a
time, leading to a deadlock if multiple processes require the same resource
simultaneously.
 Deadlock formation in Automated system

This scenario describes a production cell with three NC machines (R1, R2, and
R3) that process two types of jobs (J1 and J2). Each machine holds one
workpiece at a time, with no additional storage or buffers. Job type J1 follows a
process sequence of R1 → R2 → R3, while job type J2 follows the reverse
sequence, R3 → R2 → R1. An automated guided vehicle (AGV) transfers jobs
between machines and the I/O station.
 Deadlock formation in Automated system

In the example, one job J1 is on R1, and another job J2 is on R2. The system
encounters a deadlock because the AGV cannot move either job to the next
machine without encountering a blockage at the destination, leading to a stalled
system. In this situation, both jobs are permanently blocked, rendering the
resources (machines and AGV) unusable until external interference resolves the
deadlock.
 Petrinet models for Dead lock avoidance
• Deadlocks like this severely degrade system performance and require
detection and prevention mechanisms to avoid halting operations in
automated production systems. Preventive strategies are crucial to
maintain efficiency and resource utilization.
• A Petri net model is a mathematical representation used to describe
distributed systems and their dynamics, particularly in the fields of
computer science, systems engineering, and manufacturing.
• To develop a Petri net model for deadlock avoidance in the described
production cell, we need to represent the system components
(machines, jobs, AGV, and operations) and model the movement of
jobs between machines and the potential deadlock.
• Petri nets are useful in this context because they visually and
analytically model concurrent processes, resource allocation, and
synchronization, and can be used to predict deadlock situations.
 Petrinet models for Dead lock avoidance
Components of the Petri net model:
• Places represent the state of machines, jobs, and the AGV (e.g., a
machine being free or busy, a job being on a machine or in transit).
• Transitions represent the operations or movements (e.g., job transfers
between machines, AGV picking and placing jobs).
• Tokens represent the current flow relation between jobs (J1 or J2) and
the availability of resources (machines, AGV).
Petri net model for the system:
• Step 1: Define places
• P1: Machine R1 is free
• P2: Machine R2 is free
• P3: Machine R3 is free
• P4: AGV is free
• P5: Job J1 is loaded on R1
• P6: Job J1 is loaded on R2
 Petrinet models for Dead lock avoidance
• P7: Job J1 is loaded on R3
• P8: Job J2 is loaded on R1
• P9: Job J2 is loaded on R2
• P10: Job J2 is loaded on R3
• Step 2: Define transitions
• T1: AGV picks J1 from R1 and moves to R2
• T2: AGV picks J1 from R2 and moves to R3
• T3: AGV picks J2 from R3 and moves to R2
• T4: AGV picks J2 from R2 and moves to R1
• T5: J1 is processed on R1
• T6: J1 is processed on R2
• T7: J1 is processed on R3
• T8: J2 is processed on R1
• T9: J2 is processed on R2
• T10: J2 is processed on R3
 Petrinet models for Dead lock avoidance
Step 3: Initial marking (initial state)
• A token is placed in P1, P2, and P3 to indicate all machines are
initially free.
• A token is placed in P4 to indicate that the AGV is initially free.
• A token is placed in P5 and P9 to indicate that Job J1 is on R1, and
Job J2 is on R2.
Step 4: Deadlock situation
• A deadlock occurs when J1 on R1 needs to move to R2, but R2 is
occupied by J2, and J2 cannot move to R1 because R1 is occupied by
J1.
• This can be modeled by blocking transitions T1 and T4
simultaneously, where neither J1 nor J2 can proceed to the next
machine.
Step 5: Deadlock avoidance
• To avoid deadlock, we can introduce control places and transitions to
prevent both jobs from occupying conflicting paths:
• Add a control place P11 representing that the AGV is in use for J1 and P12
for J2.
• Introduce a condition such that once the AGV is allocated for one job type
(e.g., J1), it cannot be assigned to the other job (J2) until the current job
completes its transfer.
• This control mechanism would prevent the AGV from attempting to move J1
to R2 while J2 is still occupying it and vice versa.
Example transitions for deadlock avoidance:
• Before T1 can fire (AGV picking J1 from R1), check if P9 (J2 on R2) is
free.
• Before T4 can fire (AGV picking J2 from R2), check if P5 (J1 on R1) is
free.
This Petri net model allows simulation of the job movement in the system and
will highlight when a deadlock situation could occur (blocked transitions). By
adding the control mechanism, the model can avoid deadlock by ensuring jobs
are moved in sequence without blocking each other.
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