Sampling Methods
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Learning objectives…
At the end of this lecture the students will be able
to:
Define common terms used in sampling
Distinguish the difference between probability and non
probability sampling
Identify the different methods of probability and non
probability sampling techniques
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of each
technique
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Sampling
Sampling is a process of choosing a section of the
population for observation and study.
Is taking representative subgroup of the reference
population
Sample should reflect all the qualities found in the
population
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Common terms used in sampling
Reference population (target population)
The population of interest, to which the investigator
would like to generalize the results of the study
Source population
From which the representative sample is to be drawn
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Common terms…
Study or sample population
The population included in the sample
Sampling unit
The unit of selection in the sampling process
Study unit
The unit on which information is collected
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Common terms…
Sampling frame
The list of all the units in the reference population,
from which a sample is to be picked
Sampling fraction/sampling interval
The ratio of the number of units in the sample to No. of
units the reference population (n/N)
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Common terms…
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Common terms…
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Hierarchy of Sampling
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Why sampling?
Feasibility: Sampling may be the only feasible
method of collecting the information.
Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands on
resource such as finance, personnel, and material.
Greater accuracy: Sampling may lead to better
accuracy of collecting data
Sampling error: Precise allowance can be made for
sampling error
Greater speed: Data can be collected and
summarized more quickly and (save time).
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Why con….
For given resource, sampling can broader the
cope of the data set
If accessing the population is impossible,
sampling is the only option.
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Limitations of sampling…
There is always a sampling error
Sampling may create a feeling of discrimination
with in the population
Sampling may be inadvisable where every unit in
the population is legally required to have a record
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Types of sampling
A. Probability sampling
Subjects of the sample are chosen based on known (non-zero chance)
probabilities.
Chance mechanism is used in the selection process
Guarantees that every element in the population of interest has the
same probability of being chosen for the sample as all other elements
in the population; “random” selection.
Eliminate bias the selection process
B. Non-probability sampling
we do not know the probability that each population element will be
chosen, and/or
we cannot be sure that each population element has a non-zero chance
of being chosen.
Open the selection bias
Not appropriate data collection methods for most statistical methods
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Main differences
Probability sampling Non-Probability sampling
Every item has a chance of being Not every item that has chance of being
selected. selected
Randomization is a feature of the An assumption that there is an even
selection process. distribution of characteristics within the
population
Elements are chosen randomly with Elements are chosen arbitrarily
a (non-zero) probability
Produce representative data Produce non representative data
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Types of Sampling Methods
Sampling
Probability Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Simple
Random Stratified
Convenience
Quota
Cluster
Purposive Snowball
Systematic
Volunteer Multistage
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I. Probability Sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of
sampling that utilizes some form of random selection.
Is more complex, more time-consuming and usually more
costly than non-probability sampling
Inferences can be made about the population
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Probability Sampling…
The population of interest is clear (because it
must be identified before sampling from it.)
Possible sources of bias are removed, such as
self-selection and interviewer selection effects.
The general size of the sampling error can be
estimated
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Probability Sampling…
Includes
1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling
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1. Simple random sampling
Each sampling unit in the population has an equal chance of
being included in the sample.
Steps
1. Define the population
2. Determine the desired sample size
3. List all members of the population or the potential subjects
(sampling frame)-we can use codes
4. Select the desired samples by simple random methods
we can apply methods like
Lottery method (sample drawn from box)
Table of random numbers (show the table)
Computer generated random numbers
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Advantages of SRS
Each unit in the sampling frame has an equal
chance of being selected
The formulas are easy to use.
Easy to apply to small populations.
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Disadvantages of SRS
Can be expensive and unfeasible for large
populations –need complete list.
Minority subgroups may not be present in the
sample in sufficient numbers for the study
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2. Systematic random sampling
Individuals are chosen at regular intervals from the sampling
frame
Steps :
1. Number the units on your frame from 1 to N (population size)
2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing N/n. Example,
N=100, n=20, then k=N/n=100/20=5 (K = size of the selection interval)
3. Select a number between 1 and K at random. This number is
called the random start.
4. Using the sample above, you would select a number b/n 1
and 4.
5. Select every Kth (in this case, every fifth) unit after the first
number.
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Systematic random sampling…
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Advantages of Systematic sampling
Require no sampling frame
Easier to perform
Require less time than SRS
Very good when the population from which
sample is to be drawn is homogeneously
distributed.
Disadvantage:
Patterns/periodicity in which case it may be non representative
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3. Stratified Sampling
The population is first divided into groups of elements having similar
characteristics called strata.
Each element in the population belongs to one and only one stratum.
It is appropriate when the distribution of the characteristic to be
studied is heterogeneous
Best results are obtained when the elements within each stratum are
homogeneous group
Maximum homogeneity within the group and max. heterogeneity
among the groups contribute for the accuracy of the estimates.
A simple random sample is taken from each stratum
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Stratified Sampling…
A separate sample is then taken from each stratum by
random sampling
The sampling method can vary from one stratum to another.
Proportionate allocation
The same sampling fraction is used for each stratum
Non-proportionate allocation (disproportionate)
Different sampling fraction is used or
Though the strata are unequal in size, a fixed number of
units is selected from each stratum
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Advantages Stratified Sampling
If strata are homogeneous, this method is as
“precise” as simple random sampling but with a
smaller total sample size
Good representation of the minorities in non-proportional
allocation
This will increase the adequacy of the sample of each stratum
to equate the statistical power of tests of differences between
strata.
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Disadvantages Stratified Sampling
Can be difficult to select relevant stratification variables
Not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups
Can be expensive
Requires accurate information about the population, if
not it introduces bias.
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Example
Suppose that in a company (E.g AMC) has 1800 (N) staff from
which 400 (n) are to be selected proportionally:
Male academic staff = 900
Male administrative staff = 180
Female academic staff = 90
Female administrative staff = 630
To take a sample of 400 staffs, stratified according to the
above categories by using the formula for proportional
allocation.
Ni
n i
N
xn
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Example…
By using the formula
Male academic staff = (900 / 1800) x 400 = 200
Male administrative staff = (180 / 1800) x 400 = 40
Female academic staff = (90 / 1800) x 400 = 20
Female administrative staff = (630 / 1800) x 400 = 140
Final = 200 + 40 + 20 + 140 = 400
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4.Cluster sampling
Population is divided in to non overlapping cluster or areas
Is a sampling technique used when "natural" groupings are
evident in a statistical population.
If not, the population is first divided into separate groups of
elements called clusters
Reference population (homogeneous) is divided into clusters –
often geographical units
A simple random sample of the clusters is then taken
All the units in the selected cluster are studied
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Cluster sampling…
Cluster samples are generally used if:
No list of the population exists.
Well-defined clusters, which will often be geographic areas
exist.
A reasonable estimate of the number of elements in each
level of clustering can be made.
Often the total sample size must be fairly large to enable
cluster sampling to be used effectively.
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Cluster sampling…
Advantages:
Sampling frame of the reference population is not required
(Sufficient to have a list of clusters)
More convent for geographical dispersed
Cost effective
Disadvantage:
Based on the assumption that the study units are uniformly
distributed through out the reference population. Which may
not be always the case.
We do not have total control over the final sample size
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5. Multistage sampling
Used when the reference population is large and widely
scattered.
Selection is done in stages until the final sampling unit are
arrived at.
Primary sampling units –from the first sampling stage
Secondary sampling units- from the second sampling
stage etc..
Finally study subjects will be selected by SRS
No need of sampling frame for the reference population.
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Multistage …
Advantage
Cuts the cost of preparing the sample frame
Disadvantage
sampling error is high compared with simple random
sampling (so we need to use design effect)
Less precise estimation than SRS for the same sample but
the reduction in cost outweighs this and allow for a large
sample size
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Example Multistage …
Suppose research wanted to study the risk of
AAU ( Addis Ababa University) students to
HIV/AIDS and wanted to include 1500 students.
How can he go about?
Multi stage
Primary sampling unit: Campus/college(review number of
campus of AAU)
Secondary sampling unit: Departments
Tertiary sampling unit: students
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Multistage …
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2. Non-Probability Sampling
Advantage
Used when a sampling frame does not exist
They are quick, inexpensive and Convenient
Useful when descriptive comments about the sample itself
are desired
Good for pretests, pilot studies, In-depth interviews
Used when Precise representativeness is not necessary.
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Non-Probability Sampling…
Disadvantages
No random selection (non-representative)
Reliability cannot be measured
No way to measure the precision of the resulting
sample.
Inappropriate for generalizing findings obtained from
a sample to the population.
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Types Non-Probability Sampling
1. Convenience/ opportunity/haphazard/accidental sampling.
2. Volunteer sampling
3. Purposive/ judgemental sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball sampling
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1.Convenience/opportunity/accidental
sampling
Selection of a sample based on easy accessibility
and convenience
Is not representative of the target population
it may deliver accurate results when the population
is homogeneous
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2.Volunteer sampling
As the term implies, this type of sampling occurs when people
volunteer their services for the study
The sample is taken from a group of volunteers
Sometimes, the researcher offers payment to entice
respondents
Commonly used in psychological experiments or
pharmaceutical trials (drug testing),
Its limitation, it would be difficult and unethical to enlist
random participants from the general public- volunteers.
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3.Purposive/Judgemental sampling
The selection of a sample based on judgment and knowledge
of the subject
It is subject to the researcher's biases - more biased than
haphazard sampling
Can be used in pre-testing of questionnaires
Focus groups or in-depth interviews
Example
In laboratory settings choice of experimental subjects (i.e., animal,
vegetable etc..)
Reflects the investigator's pre-existing beliefs about the
population.
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4.Quota sampling
Is the most common forms of non-probability sampling
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive
sub-groups
A quota is given to select the subjects or units from each
segment based on a specified proportion.
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-
random.
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Quota ….
Advantages
Quota sampling is generally less expensive than random sampling.
Easy to administer
It is an effective sampling method when information is urgently
required and can be carried out independent of existing sampling
frames.
Disadvantages
It does not meet the basic requirement of randomness.
Some units may have no chance of selection or the chance of
selection may be unknown. Therefore, the sample may be
biased.
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5.Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is a special non-probability method used
when the desired sample characteristic is rare.
lower cost
But, biased
Involves two main steps.
1. Identify a few key individuals
2. Ask these individuals to volunteer to distribute the questionnaire
to people who know and fit the characteristics of the desired
sample
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Errors In sampling
Sampling error (random error)
Non sampling error (bias)
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Sampling error
A sample is a subset of a population.
Because of this property of samples, results obtained
from them can not reflect the full range of variation
found in population which arise from the sampling
process it self.
Cab be avoided by increasing the size of the sample,
When n=N sampling error is 0
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Non sampling error
It is a type of systematic error in the design or
conduct of a sampling procedure which results in
distortion of the sample
How to reduce/avoid
careful design of the sampling procedure and not by
increasing of the sample size and
Testing the data collection tool
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Non sampling error
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Thank You!
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