Sample & Sampling Methods

Mohammad Jahangir Alam, PhD

Professor
Department of Agribusiness and Marketing
Bangladesh Agricultural University
Mymensingh-2202
Learning Objectives

• Understand population, sample and sampling

• Understand the reasons for sampling
• Understanding different sampling methods
• Differences between probability & non probability sampling
• Development of sampling plan
 Population
• A population can be defined as including all people or items with
the characteristic one wishes to understand.
• Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather
information from everyone or everything in a population, the goal
becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that
population.

Sample
• A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of
units from a population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)
Population:
A set which includes all measurements of interest to the
researcher
(The collection of all responses, measurements, or counts that
are of interest)

Sample:
A subset of the population
Sampling Breakdown
 Why Sampling?

• Sampling can save money.

• Sampling can save time.
• For given resources, sampling can broaden the scope of data set.
• Because the research process is sometimes destructive, the
sample can save product.
• If accessing the population is impossible; sampling is the only
option.
 Classification of Sampling Methods

Sampling
Methods

Probability Non-
Samples probability

Systematic Stratified Convenience Snowball

Cluster Simple Judgment Quota

Random
 Sampling Methods

Probability (Random) Samples: Known, nonzero probability for

every element
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic random sampling
• Cluster sample
• Stratified random sampling
• Multistage sampling
Non-Probability Samples: Probability of selecting any particular
member is unknown
– Convenience sampling
– Purposive sampling
– Quota sampling
– Snowball sampling
 Probability Sampling

• A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the

population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in
the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.

• When every element in the population does have the same

probability of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of
selection' (EPS) design.
 Non-probability sampling

• Any sampling method where some elements of population have

no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of selection
can't be accurately determined.
 Simple Random Sampling

• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily

available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each
element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is
done by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine
which units are to be selected.
Simple random sampling
Advantages
▪ Minimal knowledge of population needed
▪ External validity high; internal validity high; statistical
estimation of error is low
▪ Easy to analyze data
Disadvantages
▪ High cost; low frequency of use

▪ Requires sampling frame

▪ Does not need researchers’ expertise

▪ Larger risk of random error than stratified

 Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is

superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error.

• A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common

characteristic; such as males and females.
– Identify relevant stratums and their actual representation in the
population.
– Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of
subjects from each stratum.
– Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums
in the population have a low incidence relative to the other
stratums.
 Stratified Sampling

• Stratified sampling: the population is separated into homogeneous

groups/segments/strata and a sample is taken from each. The
results are then combined to get the picture of the total population.
• Sample stratum size determination
• Proportional method (stratum share of total sample is stratum
share of total population)
• Disproportionate method (variances among strata affect sample
size for each stratum)
Types of Stratified Samples

◼ Proportional Stratified Sample

o The number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in
proportion to the relative population size of that stratum

◼ Disproportional Stratified Sample

o The number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is allocated
according to analytical considerations e.g. as variability increases
sample size of stratum should increase
Stratified Random Sample: Population of Super-market
Consumers

Stratified by Age
20 - 30 years old
(homogeneous within)
(alike) Heterogeneous
(different)
30 - 40 years old between
(homogeneous within)
(alike) Heterogeneous
(different)
40 - 50 years old between
(homogeneous within)
(alike)
Stratified Sampling ….

Draw a sample from each stratum

How?

1.Identify variable(s) as an efficient basis for

stratification.

2.Complete list of population elements must be obtained

3.Use randomization to take a simple random sample

from each stratum
Advantages
▪ Assures representation of all groups in sample population
needed
▪ Characteristics of each stratum can be estimated & comparisons
made
▪ Reduces variability from systematic
Disadvantages
▪ Requires accurate information on proportions of each stratum

▪ Stratified lists costly to prepare

 Systematic random sampling

• Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population

according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at
regular intervals through that ordered list.
• Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the
selection of every k-th element from then onwards. In this case, k =
(population size/sample size).
• It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the
list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the k-th
element in the list.
• A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the
telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as
'sampling with a skip of 10').
 Systematic random sampling: Example

• Purchase orders for the previous fiscal year are serialized 1

to 10,000 (N = 10,000).
• A sample of fifty (n = 50) purchase orders is needed for
audit.
• k = 10,000/50 = 200
• First sample element randomly selected from the first 200
purchase orders. Assume the 45th purchase order was
selected.
• Subsequent sample elements: 245, 445, 645, . . .
 Systematic Sampling……

▪ Systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all elements have

the same probability of selection (in the example given, one in ten).
▪ It is not 'simple random sampling' because different subsets of the
same size have different selection probabilities - e.g. the set
{4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-ten probability of selection, but the set
{4,13,24,34,...} has zero probability of selection.
Systematic sampling
How to draw?
Sampling interval (SI) = population list size (N) divided by a pre-
determined sample size (n)
1) Calculate SI
2) Select a number between 1 and SI randomly
3) Go to this number as the starting point and the item on the list
here is the first in the sample
4) Add SI to the position number of this item and the new position
will be the second sampled item
5) Continue this process until desired sample size is reached
 Systematic Sampling…..

• Advantages
• Known and equal chance of any of the SI “clusters” being
selected
• Efficiency..do not need to designate (assign a number to) every
population member, just those early on the list (unless there is a
very large sampling frame).
• Less expensive…faster than SRS
• Disadvantages
• Small loss in sampling precision
• Potential “periodicity” problems
 Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .

• First stage a sample of areas is chosen
• Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is
selected.
• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually
based on geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then selected.
• All units from the selected clusters are studied.
 Cluster Sampling…….

Two types of cluster sampling methods.

One-stage sampling. All of the elements within selected clusters
are included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements within selected
clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the sample.
 Cluster Sampling…….

• Identification of clusters
– List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities with their
population falling in target area under study.
– Calculate cumulative population & divide by i. e., 30, this
gives sampling interval.
– Select a random number less than or equal to sampling interval
having same number of digits. This forms 1st cluster.
– Random number + sampling interval = population of 2nd
cluster.
– Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster.
– Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling interval
 Cluster sampling..............

Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
 Cluster Sampling…….
Advantages
• More convenient for geographically dispersed populations
• Reduced travel costs to contact sample elements
• Simplified administration of the survey
• Unavailability of sampling frame prohibits using other
random sampling methods
Disadvantages
• Statistically less efficient when the cluster elements are
similar
• Costs and problems of statistical analysis are greater than for
simple random sampling
 Non-probability Sampling

• Convenience
• Judgment
• Quota
• Snowball
 Non-Probability Sampling Methods

◼ Convenience Sample
◼ Also called opportunity, haphazard or accidental sampling

◼ The sampling procedure used to obtain those units or people most

conveniently available
i. e., if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping center
early in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could
interview would be limited to those given there at that given
time, which would not represent the views of other members of
society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at
different times of day and several times per week.
Error occurs i) in the form of members of the population who are
infrequent or nonusers of that location & ii) who are not typical
in the population
◼ Why?: speed and cost
 Convenience Sampling……

Use results that are easy to get

38
◼ Advantages
◼ Very low cost
◼ Extensively used/understood

◼ No need for list of population elements

◼ Disadvantages
◼ Variability and bias cannot be measured or controlled

◼ Projecting data beyond sample not justified.

 Judgmental or Purposive sampling
• The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study.
• This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that
have expertise in the area being researched.
• Samples that require a judgment or an “educated guess” on the part of
the interviewer as to who should represent the population. Also,
“judges” (informed individuals) may be asked to suggest who should
be in the sample.
• Subjectivity enters in here, and certain members of the population
will have a smaller or no chance of selection compared to others
◼ Advantages
◼ Moderate cost
◼ Commonly used/understood

◼ Sample will meet a specific objective

◼ Disadvantages
◼ Bias!

◼ Projecting data beyond sample not justified.

 Quota Sampling

• The sampling procedure that ensure that a certain characteristic

of a population sample will be represented to the exact extent
that the investigator desires
• It is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling.
– First identify the stratums and their proportions as they are
represented in the population
– Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the
required number of subjects from each stratum.
 Quota Sampling……..
• The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups,
just as in stratified sampling.
• Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based
on a specified proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females & 300
males between the age of 45 and 60.
• It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability
sampling.
• In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
• i. e., interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most
helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not
everyone gets a chance of selection. This random element is its greatest
weakness & quota versus probability has been a matter of controversy for
many years
Advantages
o Moderate cost
o Very extensively used/understood
o No need for list of population elements
o Introduces some elements of stratification
Disadvantages
o Variability and bias cannot be measured or controlled
(classification of subjects)
o Projecting data beyond sample not justified.
 Snowball Sampling

▪ Snowball sampling is a special non-probability method used

when the desired sample characteristic is rare.
▪ It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate
respondents in these situations.
▪ This technique relies on referrals from initial subjects to
generate additional subjects.
▪ It lowers search costs; however, it introduces bias because the
technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will
represent a good cross section from the population.
Advantages
o Low cost
o Useful in specific circumstances

o Useful for locating rare populations

Disadvantages
o Bias because sampling units not independent

o Projecting data beyond sample not justified.

Stages in Sampling Process & Sample Size
Determination
Stages in the Sampling Process

Define the target population

Select a sampling frame

Determine sampling method

Plan procedure for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
 Step 1: Target Population

• Who has the information/data you need?

• How do you define your target population?
- Geography
- Demographics
 Step 2: Sampling Frame

• A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn

• Working population
• Sampling frame error
– Error that occurs when certain sample elements are not
listed or available & are not represented in the sampling
frame
 Step 3: Determining sampling method (Probability or
Nonprobability)

Probability Sample:
▪ A sampling technique in which every member of the population
will have a known, nonzero probability of being selected

Non-Probability Sample:
▪ Units of the sample are chosen on the basis of personal judgment
or convenience
▪ There are NO statistical techniques for measuring random
sampling error in a non-probability sample. Therefore,
generalizability is never statistically appropriate.
 After the Sample Method is Selected

• Determine sample size

• Select actual sample units
• Conduct fieldwork
Appropriate sample design depends on…

• Degree of accuracy
• Resources
• Time
• Advanced knowledge of the population
• National versus local
• Need for statistical analysis
 Step 4: Determining Sample Size
• What data do you need to consider
– Variance or heterogeneity of population
– Degree of acceptable error (confidence interval)
– Confidence level

– Generally, we need to make judgments on all these variables

where, n = sample size; N= total number of respondents; z = confidence

level (at 95% level z= 1.96); p= estimated population proportion (0.5, this
maximizes the sample size) & d=error limit of 5% (0.05)
 Sampling Distribution of x-bar

Proper analysis & interpretation of a sample statistic requires

knowledge of its distribution.

Calculate x
to estimate 
Population Sample
 Process of Inferential
Statistics
x
(parameter) (statistic)

Select a
random sample