An Assignment

On
Nutritional value of Egg Meat & Milk
Course code: ADS MC2
Course Title: Fisheries, Aquaculture and Livestock Management

Date of Assigned Date of Submission

07 10 20221 20 10 2021

Assigned By Submitted By

Prof Dr. AKM Ahsan Kabir Marzia Rahman Lima

Department of Animal Science,
Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh-2202
ID No: 21180111
Reg. No:52505
Institute of Agribusiness and
Development Studies
Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh-2202

Institute of Agribusiness and Development Studies

Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202

1
Definition of Egg
The content of the hard-shelled reproductive body produced by a bird, considered as food.

While the primary role of the egg obviously is to reproduce the species, most eggs laid by
domestic fowl, except those specifically set aside for hatching, are not fertilized but are sold
mainly for human Eggs produced from chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, pigeons, pheasants,
and quail .This article describes the processing of chicken eggs, which represent the bulk of egg
production in the United States and Europe. Duck eggs are consumed as food in parts of Europe
and Asia, and goose eggs are also a food in many European countries. Commercial production of
turkey and pigeon eggs is almost entirely confined to those used for producing turkey poults and
young pigeons (squabs). Pheasant and quail eggs provide birds for hobby or sport use.

Structure and composition

The structural components of the egg include the shell and shell membranes (10 percent); the
albumen or white (60 percent), including the thick albumen, the outer thin albumen, the inner
thin albumen, and the chalazae; and the yolk (30 percent).

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In a fertilized egg, the yolk supplies the nutrients and the albumen supplies the water necessary
for the development of the embryo. In addition, the layers of albumen act as a cushion to protect
the embryo from jarring movements, while the chalazae help to maintain the orientation of the
embryo within the egg.

The nutrient composition of chicken eggs is presented in the table.

Nutrient composition of fresh chicken egg (per 100 g) *

energ
water protein fat cholesterol carbohydrate vitamin riboflavin calcium phosphorus
y
(g) (g) (g) (mg) (g) A (IU) (mg) (mg) (mg)
(kca)

whole 10.0
149 75.33 12.49 425 1.22 635 0.508 49 178
egg 2

30.8
yolk 358 48.81 16.76 1,281 1.78 1,945 0.639 137 488
7

white 50 87.81 10.52 0 — 1.03 — 0.452 6 13

Egg Nutrients
Egg proteins are distributed equally between egg white and egg yolk, while lipids, vitamins, and
minerals are essentially concentrated in egg yolk. Water constitutes the major part of egg and it
is noteworthy that the egg is devoid of fibers. The relative content of egg minerals, vitamins, or
specific fatty acids may vary from one national reference to another but remains globally
comparable when considering major constituents such as water, proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates. The major egg nutrients are, indeed, very stable and depend on the ratio of egg
white to yolk in contrast to minor components, which are affected by several factors including
hen nutrition. In a whole, raw, and freshly laid egg, water, protein, fat, carbohydrates, and ash
represent about 76.1%, 12.6%, 9.5%, 0.7%, and 1.1%, respectively.

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 a b

Macronutrients
A. Proteins

Egg white and egg yolk are highly concentrated in proteins. Hundreds of different proteins have
been identified and are associated with specific physiological functions to fulfill time-specific
requirements during embryo development. The compartment-specificity of some of these
proteins can be explained by the fact that egg yolk and egg white are formed by distinct tissues.
Egg yolk has essentially a hepatic origin, while egg white is synthesized and secreted after
ovulation of the mature yolk in the hen’s oviduct.
The concentration of proteins is, on average, 12.5 g per 100 g of whole raw fresh egg, while egg
yolk with its vitelline membrane and egg white contain 15.9 g protein and 10.90 g protein per
100 g, respectively. These values are slightly modified by hen genetics and age.Thanks to
complementary proteomic approaches, nearly 1000 different proteins have been identified in the
chicken egg, including the eggshell
Yolk is a complex milieu containing 68% low-density lipoproteins (LDL), 16% high-density
lipoproteins (HDLs), 10% livetins and other soluble proteins, and 4% phosvitins. These
components are distributed between non-soluble protein aggregates called granules (19–23% of
dry matter), which account for about 50% of yolk proteins, and a clear yellow fluid or plasma,
that corresponds to 77–81% of dry matter [Apolipoprotein B, apovitellenin-1, vitellogenins,
serum albumin, immunoglobulins, ovalbumin, and ovotransferrin are the most abundant proteins
of egg yolk, representing more than 80% of total egg-yolk proteins. Yolk is tightly associated
with the vitelline membranes, which consist of two distinct layers that form an extracellular
protein matrix embracing the yolk. These membranes provide to the yolk a physical separation
from other egg compartments and prevents subsequent leakage of egg yolk towards egg white.

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The egg white is a gel-like structure that lacks lipids and is composed mainly of water (about
88%, fibrous structural proteins (ovomucins), glycoproteins (ovalbumin, protease inhibitors),
antibacterial proteins (lysozyme), and peptides. The average volume of egg white is estimated to
be 30 mL (for an egg weighting 60 g, eggshell included) and protein concentration is about 110
mg/mL of egg white. In total, 150 distinct proteins have been identified in egg white, knowing
that the very abundant ovalbumin accounts for 50% of the total egg-white proteins. The
physiological function of this protein in egg remains unknown but ovalbumin is assumed to
provide essential amino-acids for the chicken embryo growth. Egg-white ovalbumin thus
represents a valuable source of amino-acids for human nutrition. Besides ovalbumin, egg white
is concentrated in antibacterial lysozyme that is currently used as an anti-infectious agent in
many pharmaceuticals and as food preservative the viscous aspect of egg white is essentially due
to ovomucin Remarkably, egg white is also characterized by the presence of four highly
abundant protease inhibitors that may delay digestion of egg components, especially when egg
white is used as a raw ingredient in some food preparations.

B. Lipids
The total lipid content is relatively stable in the egg ranging from 8.7 to 11.2 per 100 g of whole
egg, when considering various EU countries and USA egg composition tables These lipids are
only concentrated in the egg yolk and a small part may remain tightly associated with vitelline
membranes.
Lipids are part of yolk lipoproteins whose structure consists of a core of triglycerides and
cholesteryl esters, surrounded by a monolayer of phospholipids and cholesterol in which
apoproteins are embedded. It is very difficult to change total lipid content in egg. An increase of
fat in egg essentially depends on the increase of yolk-to-egg-white ratio, which is, however,
poorly affected by hen’s nutrition. In contrast, fatty acid profile strongly depends on hen’s diet
This variability is illustrated in by minimal and maximal values of fatty acids (saturated,
monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated). Noticeably, the relative amount of unsaturated
(monounsaturated + polyunsaturated) to saturated fatty acids in yolk (5.31 g versus 2.64 g per
100g of whole egg, is particularly high compared to other animal-derived food sources. Yolk is
also a rich source of essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid (FA 18:2 9c,12c (n-6)). The high
content of cholesterol in eggs (400 mg per 100 g of whole egg) has contributed to the decline of
egg intake 30 to 40 years ago, although many studies conducted in the 1990s have reported an
absence of correlation between egg intake and high level of plasmatic cholesterol. It is now
assumed that variation in plasmatic cholesterol and associated cardiovascular disease risk results
from food factors but also saturated fatty acids intake (such as dietary myristic (14:0) and
palmitic (16:0) acids). Old studies performed in vivo on monkeys and gerbils have shown that
dietary 14:0 (myristic acid) and 18:2 (linoleic acid) are the main fatty acids modulating plasma
cholesterol—14:0 was the main saturated fatty acid raising plasma cholesterol and 18:2 was the
only fatty acid that consistently lowered it. In egg, 14:0 (myristic acid, 0.024 g per 100 g whole
egg) is much less concentrated compared to unsaturated fatty acids 18:2 (linoleic acid, 1.38 g per
100g whole egg). These data all concur to corroborate that egg is not associated with higher

5
cardiovascular disease incidence in healthy patients. However, egg intake has to be controlled in
hyper-responders to dietary cholesterol (about 15% to 25% of the population), as an increase in
egg consumption in these people affects plasma lipids to a greater extent than in hypo-
responders.

C. Carbohydrates
Egg does not contain any fibers and its content in carbohydrates is low (0.7%). Egg
carbohydrates are distributed between egg yolk and egg white. Glucose is the dominant free
sugar in the egg (about 0.37 g per 100 g of whole egg) and is essentially present in egg white
(0.34 g per 100 g of egg white versus 0.18 g per 100 g of egg yolk). Trace amounts of fructose,
lactose, maltose, and galactose have been detected in raw egg white and raw egg yolk.
Carbohydrates are also highly represented in egg proteins, knowing that many of them are
glycoproteins undergoing post-translational glycosylations prior to secretion by reproductive
tissues of the hen to form yolk, membranes, and egg white.

Table Egg lipids 1.

Egg, Whole, Egg Yolk,
Raw Raw
Name Average Min. Max. Average Min. Max.
Content Value Value Content Value Value
(g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g)
FA saturated 2.64 0.05 3.13 8.47 7.13 9.55
FA 4:0 <0.05 0 -2 0 - -
FA 6:0 <0.05 0 - 0 - -
FA 8:0 <0.05 0 - 0.009 - -
FA 10:0 <0.05 0 - 0.009 - -
FA 12:0 <0.05 0 - 0.009 - -
FA 14:0 0.024 0 0.038 0.091 0.077 0.1
FA 16:0 1.96 0.05 2.43 6.04 5.03 6.86
FA 18:0 0.65 0.05 0.89 1.73 - 2.42
FA 3.66 0.05 6.73 11.9 10.2 13.8
monounsaturated
FA 18:1 n-9 cis 3.51 3.03 3.65 10.4 9.69 11.2
FA polyunsaturated 1.65 0.05 3.39 4.07 3.33 4.66
FA 18:2 9c,12c (n- 1.38 1.18 2.7 3.28 - 3.62
6)
FA 18:3 9c,12c,15c 0.061 0.02 0.58 0.15 - 0.27
(n-3)
FA 20:4 0.12 - 0.13 0.37 - 0.4
5c,8c,11c,14c (n-6)
FA 20:5
5c,8c,11c,14c,1 0 - 0.003 0.01 - 0.011
7c (n-3) EPA
FA 22:6
4c,7c,10c,13c,16c,19c
0.09 0.045 0.18 0.25 0.11 0.46
(n-3)
DHA
Cholesterol 0.398 0.344 0.423 0.939 1.280

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Micronutrients
A. Vitamins and Choline

The egg and, more precisely, the egg yolk, is a vitamin-rich food that contains all vitamins
except vitamin C (ascorbic acid). The absence of vitamin C in the egg may result from the fact
that birds are capable of satisfying their own vitamin C requirements, by de novo synthesis from
glucose. The ability to produce vitamin C has been lost during the process of evolution in several
animal species including guinea pigs, monkeys, flying mammals, humans, and some evolved
passerine birds. Consequently, these latter species, but not domestic birds, are dependent on
dietary sources of vitamin
C (fruits and vegetables). The egg yolk contains high amount of vitamin A, D, E, K, B1, B2, B5,
B6, B9, and B12, while egg white possesses high amounts of vitamins B2, B3, and B5 but also
significant amounts of vitamins B1, B6, B8, B9, and B12. Eating two eggs per day covers 10%
to 30% of the vitamin requirements for humans. It is noteworthy that the content of liposoluble
vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, K) in egg yolk is highly dependent on the hen’s diet (See Section. In
addition to these vitamins, eggs represent a major source of choline, which is essentially
concentrated in the yolk (680 mg/100 g in the egg yolk versus 1 mg/100 g in the egg white). It
has been reported that hard-boiled egg represents the second major source of choline after beef
liver and the first source of choline in the US diet. In foods, choline is found as both water-
soluble (free choline, phosphocholine, and glycerophosphocholine) and lipid-soluble forms
(phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin) and has important and diverse functions in both
cellular maintenance and growth across all life stages. It plays some roles in neurotransmission,
brain development, and bone integrity.

Table 2. Egg vitamins 1 (average content; µg/100g).

Name Egg, Whole, Raw Egg Yolk, Raw Egg White,
Raw
Vitamin A or Retinol 160 371 0
Vitamin A precursor or Beta-carotene 0 88 0
Vitamin D or Cholecalciferol 2.0 5.4 0
Vitamin E or Alpha-tocopherol 1050 2580 0
Vitamin K or Phylloquinone 0.3 0.7 0
Vitamin C 0 0 0
Vitamin B1 or Thiamin 40 176 4
Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin 457 528 439
Vitamin B3 or Niacin 75 24 105
Vitamin B5 or Pantothenic acid 1533 2990 190
Vitamin B6 170 350 5
Vitamin B8 or Biotin 16.5–53.8 2 27.2–49.4 2 5.7–7.9 2
Vitamin B9 or Folate 47 146 4
Vitamin B12 or Colabamin 0.89 1.95 0.09

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B. Minerals and Trace Elements

Egg is rich in phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and contains moderate amounts of sodium (142
mg per 100 g of whole egg). It also contains all essential trace elements including copper, iron,
magnesium, manganese, selenium, and zinc with egg yolk being the major contributor to iron
and zinc supply. The presence of such minerals and micronutrients in egg is quite interesting as a
deficiency in some of these (Zn, Mg, and Se) has been associated with depression and fatigue
and development of pathological diseases. The concentration of some of those trace elements
(selenium, iodine) may be significantly increased depending on hen’s diet.

C. Antinutritional Factors

As mentioned above, major proteins of egg include protease inhibitors that may delay the proper
degradation of egg proteins by inhibiting digestive enzymes including pepsin, trypsin, and
chymotrypsin. Indeed, egg white is a major source of ovostatin, ovomucoid, ovoinhibitor, and.
Moreover, some of these molecules (ovoinhibitor, ovomucoid, cystatin) possess many disulfide
bonds that are likely to confer moderate resistance to denaturation by proteases and gastric
juices. Some of these antinutritional factors may be partly denatured by heat during the process
of cooking, thus facilitating protein access to digestive proteases. Moreover, some vitamin-
binding proteins highly concentrated in egg may also limit some vitamin access—avidin that
binds vitamin B12 (biotin) exhibits the highest known affinity in nature between a ligand and a
protein. The bioavailability of biotin for consumers may be compromised by the tight complex
formed between avidin and its bound vitamin B8.

Table 3. Egg minerals and trace elements (average content; mg/100g) 1.

Name Egg, Whole, Egg Yolk, Raw Egg White,
Raw Raw
Calcium 56 129 7
Copper 0.072 0.077 0.023
Iodine 0.021 0.18 0.002
Iron 1.75 2.73 0.08
Magnesium 12 5 11
Manganese 0.028 0.055 0.011
Phosphorus 198 390 15
Potassium 138 109 163
Selenium 0.030 0.056 0.020
Sodium 142 48 166
Zinc 1.29 2.30 0.03

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Egg Nutraceuticals
There is increasing evidence that egg is not solely a basic food of high nutritional value but that
it also contains many bioactive compounds (lipids, vitamins, proteins, and derived hydrolytic
peptides) of major interest for human health. In vitro analyses performed on purified proteins
have revealed a great potential in egg proteins as they exhibit a diversity of biological activities.
Various tools combining physicochemical, analytical, and in silico approaches can be used to
identify hydrolytic peptides with potential bioactivities. It is remarkable that a lot of egg proteins
have no identified physiological function described yet, besides providing essential amino-acids
for the embryo but also for egg-eating species including humans. In addition to egg proteins
displaying a wide spectrum of antimicrobial activities that could contribute to intestine health,
many efforts have been made in the last decades to further characterize biological activities of
egg-derived hydrolytic peptides that may naturally occur during the digestive process [.
Interestingly, some of these bioactive peptides are specifically generated after limited proteolysis
of denatured egg proteins, after boiling. Most of these studies were performed in vitro, but this
finding opens many fields of research. To date, little is known on how egg proteins resist acidic
pH of the stomach, digestive proteases, and intestinal microbiote, and how the presence of egg
protease inhibitors in the diet can interfere with the degradation of egg proteins by digestive
proteases. The kinetics of protein digestion is sequential, starting with the hydrolysis of proteins
into peptides until complete degradation into dipeptides and, finally, free amino acids. But it is
known that some egg proteins (ovalbumin, ovomucoid) are only partly digested suggesting that
some bioactive peptides may be generated naturally without undergoing complete degradation
into amino acids.

A. Antimicrobials
Egg antimicrobials in edible parts are essentially concentrated in egg white and the vitelline
membrane. Depending on the protein considered, these antimicrobials may exhibit antibacterial,
antiviral, antifungal, or antiparasitic activities.
Their antibacterial effect relies on several bactericidal or bacteriostatic mechanisms. Some of
them have a powerful activity via interaction with bacterial walls that further triggers
permeabilization and bacterial death (lysozyme, avian beta-defensins, etc.). The effects of the
other molecules are rather indirect by decreasing the bioavailability of iron (ovotransferrin) and
vitamins (avidin) that are required for some microbial growth, and by inhibiting microbial
proteases that are virulent factors of infection (ovoinhibitor, cystatin). The various egg
antimicrobial molecules that have been described so far in literature are listed in. Interestingly,
some of them (AvBD11, OVAX, avidin, beta-microseminoprotein) are not expressed in the
human genome, suggesting that they may constitute powerful anti-infectious agents against
human enteric pathogens, to reinforce intestinal host immunity. In addition to these egg proteins
and peptides, there are increasing data reporting the antimicrobial activity of egg-derived
peptides that may be released after partial hydrolysis by exogenous proteases. Such hydrolytic
peptides obtained from lysozyme, from ovotransferrin, from ovomucin, and from cystatin have
shown a broad range of antibacterial activities.

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 Table 4. Major egg antimicrobial proteins.
Gene ID/Gene Symbol Target Organisms
Avian beta-defensin 11 414876/AVBD11 Bacteria
Avidin 396260/AVD Bacteria
Beta-microseminoprotein-like 101750704 Bacteria
Bacteria, viruses, fungi,
Cystatin 396497/CST3 parasites
Gallin 422030/OvoDA1 Bacteria
Immunoglobulin Y -
Lysozyme 396218/LYZ Bacteria, viruses, fungi
Ovalbumin-related protein X 420898/OVALX Bacteria
OvoglobulinG2/TENP 395882/BPIFB2 Bacteria
Ovoinhibitor 416235/SPIK5 Bacteria
395381/LOC395381
Ovomucin (alpha and beta (alpha) Bacteria, viruses
subunits) 414878/MUC6 (beta)
Ovotransferrin 396241/TF Bacteria, viruses
Phosvitin 424547/VTG1 Bacteria
Pleiotrophin 418125/PTN Bacteria
Vitelline membrane outer layer
protein 1 418974/VMO1 Bacteria

B. Antioxidant Activities

Long-term oxidative stress in the gastrointestinal tract can lead to chronic intestinal disorders
and there is increasing interest in investigating the potential of food-derived antioxidants,
including egg antioxidants, in intestinal health. Chicken egg contains many antioxidant
compounds that encompass vitamins, carotenoids, minerals, and trace elements but also major
egg-white proteins such as ovotransferrin, in its native form or as hydrolytic peptides,
ovomucoid and ovomucoid hydrolysates, ovomucin hydrolysates and derived peptides , and egg
yolk-proteins including phosvitin . Most of these molecules have been generated in vitro but
some assays performed in a porcine model have revealed the beneficial effect of proteins derived
from egg yolk in reducing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The authors concluded
that supplementation of the diet with egg yolk-proteins may be a novel strategy to reduce
intestinal oxidative stress.

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C. Anti-Cancerous Molecules
There are only few data showing that food-derived proteins and peptides can also be beneficial
to prevent and to cure cancer diseases. Several studies have confirmed the tumor-inhibitory
activity of egg white lysozyme using experimental tumors. Its effect essentially relies on
immunopotentiation. Ovomucin (beta subunit) and ovomucin-derived peptides also showed anti-
tumor activities via cytotoxic effects and activation of the immune system. The anticancerous
effect of egg tripeptides and hydrolytic peptides from ovotransferrin have also been published.
Information in this field is quite scarce, but it may be worth continuing to investigate such
activities. Some interesting data may arise from studies on egg protease inhibitors since similar
molecules existing in other food product, including legumes like pea, have been described as
potential colorectal chemopreventive agents.

D. Immunomodulatory Activities
Several egg proteins have potential immunomodulatory activities. Among these, egg-white
lysozyme is a promising agent for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. In a colitis
porcine model, lysozyme was demonstrated to significantly protect animals from colitis and
reduce the local expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines while increasing the expression of the
anti-inflammatory mediators. Sulfated glycopeptides generated by proteolysis from ovomucin,
chalazae, and yolk membrane can exhibit macrophage-stimulating activities in vitro. Cytokines,
such as egg-white pleiotrophin, play a pivotal role in the generation and resolution of
inflammatory responses. In human, pleiotrophin have been shown to promote lymphocyte
survival, and to drive immune cell chemotaxis. But, the biological significance of the potential
immunomodulatory activity of egg white pleiotrophin in human intestine remains very
speculative. In contrast, some valuable immunomodulatory activities might emerge from
ovotransferrin and egg yolk vitellogenin hydrolysates after partial degradation by digestive
proteases.

Table1. Physical properties of eggs collected from domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus),
Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) and hybrid chicken

Weight (g)

Sample Whole egg Egg yolk Egg white Shell

Hybrid chicken 72.45+2.41c 21.40+1.34c 37.13+2.10a 13.92+1.01c
Guinea fowl 41.34+1.71b 13.56+1.08a 22.76+1.99a 5.02+0.98b
Domestic chicken 34.48+1.20a 11.87+0.99a 20.54+2.90a 2.07+0.33a

Values follow by the same superscript are not differ significantly at p<0.05, values are Mean + SEM of triplicate determination

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Proximate compositions of egg yolks and egg white collected from domestic chicken (Gallus
domesticus), guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) and hybrid chicken.

Proximate (%)

Sample Moisture Protein Crude fat Ash

Egg yolk
Hybrid chicken 60.45+0.14b 3.43+0.88a 27.65+0.70a 3.42+0.23b
Domestic chicken 55.60+0.16a 3.85+0.91a 30.41+0.22a 1.50+0.11a
Guinea fowl 50.50. +0.71a 4.30+0.62a 31.49+0.41a 2.15+0.25ab
Egg white
Hybrid chicken 75.50+0.14a 5.47+0.88b 2.00+0.03a 1.32+0.03b
Domestic chicken 86.90+0.16b 3.48+0.91a 1.09+0.30a 0.99+0.21a
Guinea fowl 87.45+0.71b 5.81+0.62b 1.21+0.10a 0.70+0.12a
Values follow by the same superscript are not differ significantly at p<0.05, values are Mean + SEM of triplicate determination

guinea fowl and hybrid chicken

Sample Egg yolks (mg/100g) Egg yolks (mg/100g)

Vitamin C Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin A
b
Hybrid chicken 121.50+0.14 0.33+0.88a 68.50+0.70b 0.23+0.23a
ab
Domestic chicken 110.50+0.16 0.21+0.91a 47.00+2.11a 0.11+0.91a
Guinea fowl 97.50+0.71a 0.31+0.62a 52.00+4.09a 0.78+0.63a

Conclusions
For ages, eggs have been considered as foods of high nutritional value for humans and are
widely consumed worldwide. Its consumption is predicted to continuously increase in the future,
considering the growing number of occidental consumers who start to adopt a meat-free diet
(vegetarians) or who significantly reduce their meat intake. This change in our consumption
mode and food habits is motivated by much data on the association risk of meat intake with
digestive cancers and cardiovascular diseases, and growing numbers of studies that praise
vegetarian diet [198–201]. In parallel, it is also driven by ethical concerns and environmental
issues with regards to modes of meat production.

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Definition of meat
Meat is defined to be skeletal muscle and its associated tissues derived from mammalian, avian,
reptilian, amphibian, and aquatic species commonly harvested for human consumption. Edible
offal consisting of organs and non-skeletal muscle tissues also are considered meat.

Many people in the context of meat refer to food which comes from lamb; but in reality, meat is
the body tissue of any animal that is eaten as food. This could be meat from chicken, lamb, cow,
and even frog legs. In order to classify this broad selection of meats available, the first and
foremost approach is to segregate fish from meat.

This is done because we would like to refer to meat as a tissue, which is a muscle tissue found in
animals. Muscle tissues are involved in helping the animal move its body parts. This article
discusses various kinds of meats and their usage in cookery.

Meat is valued as a complete protein food containing all the amino acids necessary for the human
body. The fat of meat, which varies widely with the species, quality, and cut, is a valuable source
of energy and also influences the flavor, juiciness, and tenderness of the lean. Parts such as
livers, kidneys, hearts, and other portions are excellent sources of vitamins and of essential
minerals, easily assimilated by the human system.

Meat digests somewhat slowly, but 95 percent of meat protein and 96 percent of the fat are
digested. Fats tend to retard the digestion of other foods; thus, meat with a reasonable proportion
of fat remains longer in the stomach, delaying hunger and giving “staying power.” Extractives in
meat cause a flow of saliva and gastric juices, creating the desire to eat and ensuring ease of
digestion.

The most widely consumed meat is beef, the flesh of mature cattle that normally weigh from 450
to 540 kg (1,000 to 1,200 pounds) and yield between 55 and 60 percent of their weight in meat.
Veal, the flesh of calves of cattle, is much less fatty than beef.
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The meat-products industry, though called meat packing, includes the slaughtering of animals.
The steps in this process generally include stunning, bleeding, eviscerating, and skinning.
Carcasses are then inspected and graded according to government-set standards of quality.

The usual methods of preserving meat from bacteria and decay are refrigerating, freezing,
curing, freeze-drying, and canning.

Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Meats

1.Physical Characteristics

A. Muscle Tissue

This is a fibrous connective tissue and it is further divided into skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
muscle. The smooth muscle is also known as visceral muscle. This would include all the arteries
and the veins in the meat. The skeletal muscle is responsible for most of the muscle weight on a
carcass and is made up of muscle fibers. The cardiac muscle, as its name implies, is what forms
the animal’s heart. Smooth muscles are found in an animal’s stomach, reproductive organs, and
circulatory system.

B. Adipose Tissue

This is the tissue where fat is deposited and stored. As the animal ages in life, the concentration
of the fat also increases in the body. Initially the fat starts to deposit around the internal organs

14
and the pelvic area but as the animal continues to age, the fat gets deposited externally just
beneath the skin. Additional fat now starts to get deposited between the muscles and also within
the muscles. This interlacing of fat in the muscle is known as the marbling of meat. Marbling
affects the flavor and tenderness of a meat and definitely the well-marbled meats cook to a
texture where it is moist and juicy.

C. Bone or the Skeletal Tissue

Skeletal tissue consists of the ligaments, tendons, cartilages, and bones of the animal. Bone tissue
can yield many nutrients and minerals, when it is used to prepare stock. Ligaments, tendons, and
cartilages yield little or no calories.

2.Chemical Characteristics

The chemical characteristics consist of water, protein, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, and
vitamins. Apart from these components, meats also have a pigment called myoglobin. It is this
pigment which is responsible for the color in the meats. Pork and lamb have lesser amount of
myoglobin and hence the meat is pink in color, whereas beef has fairly higher amounts of this
pigment leading to dark purplish color of the meat. Beef turns bright red after cutting because of
the reaction of the myoglobin with oxygen.

Classification of Meats
Before we get into the classification of the meats, let us first understand the nomenclature of
these meat products. To a layman, words such as, mutton, lamb, heifer, veal, etc. would seem
like something to do with meats, but they would not know what exactly each one would mean.
These names of the meats are given to the specific meat that comes from a specific animal.

The term beef for instance, refers to the meat from cattle which are over nine months old; all the
other cattle which range between three to nine months are classified as calf and the meat from
cattle between one month and three months would be known as ‘veal’.

15
Meat is broadly classified into the following three types

i. Bovines- Ox, cow, buffalo, bison, etc.

ii. Ovines -Sheep, lamb, goat, deer, etc.

iii. Swines- Pigs, wild boar, etc.

Nutritional Value of Meat

People who choose to eat meat often cite three reasons. The first cited reason for consuming
meat is that it tastes good and has a desirable flavor. Second, meat consumption is often
associated with social status or is enjoyed during times of celebration or special occasions.
Finally, meat is consumed because it has desirable nutritional benefits and supports human
health. As a reasoning for consuming meat from a nutritional standpoint, meat advocates have
historically used the acronym “ZIP,” which stands for zinc, iron, and protein; three nutrients
associated with meat. As noted previously, fresh uncooked meat is approximately 20% protein.
the percent daily value (DV) for protein based on a 2,000-calorie diet is 50 g. Assuming this DV,
100 g of cooked meat provides approximately 50% of the total DV (USDA, 2017b).

Protein is often a key reason for meat consumers to choose to eat meat. Fortunately, meat protein
is considered a high-quality protein. A high-quality protein is one that provides essential amino
acids, which are those that must be consumed from a food source rather than being synthesized
endogenously. Meat proteins also have a high biological value. Biological value is a measure of
the proportion of protein used from a food source to synthesize proteins in the animal’s body.
The greater the proportion of useable proteins, the greater the biological value. Most animal-
derived food products like meat, milk, and eggs are considered to have a high biological value.

Table 1. Nutrient database standards for common meat items. Nutrients listed on a 100-g
cooked basis.

Item, cookery method Protein, Lipid, Iron, Sodium, Zinc, Vitamin A,

g g mg mg mg IU
Beef 27.65 11.36 3.16 67 4.65 5
Porterhouse steak, grilled 28.88 9.01 1.98 60 5.49 0
Ribeye steak, broiled 30.93 7.7 3.02 54 3.66 22
Beef tenderloin, grilled 23.87 15.37 2.27 73 5.84 9
Ground beef 70% lean

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Pork 26.76 7.29 0.8 56 2.22 0
Grilled pork loin (chops), bone-in, 28.47 4.49 0.92 54 2.43 0
lean, broiled
Broiled pork shoulder breast, 26.69 20.04 1.1 89 2.57 0
boneless
Ground pork 84% lean, cooked 18.84 7.62 0.85 1155 2.23 0
Cured ham, boneless, cooked,
heated
Lamb 27.43 10.7 1.88 84 3.48 20
Lamb loin chop, cooked, fast fried 24.75 19.65 1.79 81 4.67 0
Ground lamb cooked, broiled 27.68 7.01 2.24 45 4.04 0
Lamb leg, lean only, cooked, 26.16 13.31 1.77 81 4.47 0
roasted
Lamb rib cooked, roasted

Poultry 30.54 3.17 0.45 52 0.9 32

Skinless chicken breast, cooked, 28.62 8.08 1.32 96 3.22 61
grilled
Chicken drumsticks, cooked, fried

Fish 60.62 11.43 1.06 51 1.14 103

Salmon filet with skin, smoked

Beef liver, cooked, braised 29.08 5.26 6.54 79 5.30 31,714

Beef kidney cooked, simmered 27.27 4.65 5.8 94 2.84 0
Pork kidney cooked, braised 25.4 4.7 5.29 80 4.15 260
Pork tongue cooked, braised 24.1 18.6 4.99 109 4.53 0
Beef tongue, cooked, simmered 19.29 22.3 2.61 65 4.09 0
Lamb tongue cooked, braised 21.57 20.28 2.63 67 2.99 0

Definition of milk

Milk may be defined as whole, fresh, clean, lacteal secretions, obtained by complete milking of
one or more healthy milch animals, excluding that obtained 15 days before or 5 days after or
such periods as may be necessary to render the milk practically colostrum free and containing
legally prescribed minimum percentage of fat and Solids-not-fat.

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In France, human milk consumption was defined in 1909 by the International Congress of Food
by the following formula: "milk is the product of the total, full and uninterrupted milking of a
dairy female in good health, also nourished and not overworked. It must be collected properly
and not contain colostrum. Milk is a whitish food generally produced by the mammary secretory
cells of females in a process called lactation; it is one of the defining characteristics of mammals.
The milk produced by the glands is contained in the udder. Milk secreted in the first days after
parturition is called colostrum. The quality of milk is paramount; therefore, it must be properly
stored and transported in optimal conditions. This vital product consists of four physical phases.
components, carbohydrates and lipids. It also comprises functional elements, such as traces of
vitamins, enzymes and dissolved gases, and contains dissolved salts, especially in the form of
phosphates, nitrates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium. It also
contains.

Table 1. The composition of milk from different mammals in

g /100 g milk (Konte,1999).

Species Water Proteins Fat Lactose Ash

Cow 87.2 3.5 3.7 4.9 0.72
Sheep 82.7 5.5 6.4 4.7 0.92
Goat 86.5 3.6 4.0 5.1 0.82
Camel 87.7 3.5 3.4 4.7 0.71

Table 2. Composition of milk and goat's milk per 100 g of milk (Cayot,
1998)

Species Proteins Casein Fat Lactose Ash

Cow 3.2 2.8 3.90 0.90 to 4.9 0.90
Goat 2.8 2.3 3.38 4.4 to 04.7 0.5 to
0.8

Composition of milk
The nutritional value of milk is particularly high due to the balance of the nutrients that compose
it. The composition varies among animal species and breeds within the same species, and also
from one dairy to the other, depending on the period of lactation and diet (Table 1). For instance,

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goat milk is 88% water and 11.4% solids; it contains 3.2% fat and 8.13% of fat solids. It is also
comprised of calcium (0.11%), phosphate (0.08%) and magnesium (0.21%).

In general, goat milk compared to cow milk (Table 2) is less rich in lactose, fat and proteins, but
have similar mineral content.

Milk contains several groups of nutrients. Organic substances are present in about equal quantity
and are divided into elements builders, proteins, and energy quantity, and milk contains a lot of
water (88.6%). This amount of water is controlled by the amount of lactose synthesized by the
secretory cells of the mammary gland.

A. Water

For all animals, water is the nutrient required in the highest quantity, and milk contains a lot of
water (88.6%). This amount of water is controlled by the amount of lactose synthesized by the
secretory cells of the mammary gland.

B. Carbohydrate
Lactose is the main carbohydrate of milk. It is formed by the union of one molecule of D-
galactose (engaged by its semiacetyl function) and one molecule of D-glucose (committed by its
hydroxyl 4 position). It has a β-galactoside 1,4 bond (which is hydrolyzed by a β-galactosidase)
and is a 4-Dglucopyranosyl-β-D-galactopyranose. Although lactose is a sugar, it does not have a
sweet flavor. Its concentration varies slightly in milk (4.5 to 5.2 g / 100 g) contrary to the
concentration of fat, that of lactose cannot be easily modified by feeding and true step of a dairy
race to another. It is used as substrate during the fermentation of milk by lactic acid bacteria,
differing in the fermented products such as yoghurt and cheese. It plays a role in fermented milk

production. The amount of lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria in a fermented milk
product depends not only on the bacterium itself

C. Proteins

The proteins in milk are of great quality, that is to say, they contain all the essential amino acids,
and elements that our bodies cannot produce. It is important to remember that proteins are the
building blocks of all living tissue. Milk proteins have roughly the same composition as the egg
protein, except for the amounts of methionine and cystine, significantly lower. Indeed, the sulfur
amino acids are the limiting factors in milk. Casein and, even more, the complex milk protein
contain good proportion of all amino acids essential for growth and maintenance (Konte, 1999).
The denomination crude protein (CP) includes protein (TP) and non-protein nitrogen (including
urea). The protein content is an important feature of the milk. The TP determines the market
value of milk, the higher the TP value is compared to a reference, the more money the producer
will get. In fact, the more TP, the higher the yield of cheese making. Milk proteins represent 95%

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of crude protein, but the remaining 5% is: free amino acids, small peptides and nonprotein
nitrogen. Protein comprise either only amino acid (β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin) or amino acid
and phosphoric acid (α and β casein) with a carbohydrate portion (sometimes even k casein). The
base of the precipitation at pH 4.6 (20°C) or under the action of the rennet separates two
components: caseins (α, β, γ and k) and the soluble protein or whey protein

Table 3. Average composition and distribution of milk proteins (FAO,

1998)

Milk protein Mean absolute (g / L) Averages (g / L)

Crude protein 34 100
Protein 32 94
Insoluble proteins or whole 36 82
casein

soluble protein 6 18
α-lactoglobulin 2.7 45
Β-lactalbumin 1.5 25
Serum albumin 0.3 5
immune globulins 0.7 12
protein peptones 0.8 13

Non-protein nitrogen 2 6
substances

D. Fat

In milk, fat is the main source of energy. Goat and cow milk are low in polyunsaturated fatty
acids that are necessary for human metabolism (Grand-Pierre et al., 1988). Fat is present in milk
in the form of an emulsion of fat cells; the concentration of the fat content of milk can be found
in small cells suspended in water which varies considerably by race and composition of feed.

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The unsaturated fatty acids are lipid molecules containing at least one double bond, according to
the structure of this or of these double bonds. It is possible to distinguish the cis fatty acids and
trans fatty acids (Figure 1). Most unsaturated fats in our diet are in the cis form, and a lower
proportion. The fat content of goat milk is slightly greater than that of cow milk, in both cases
triglycerides represent more than 95% of total lipids. Phospholipids comprise 30 to 40 mg/100
ml of cow milk which contains 8 to 10 mg of lipid, cholesterol is from 10 to 20 mg per 100 ml,
most of which is in the free form (Table 5).

During the homogenization of milk, the fat globule increases in number and considerably
decreases in diameter (less than 1 micron). Therefore, the contact area increases about 20 times.
This change prevents fat from rising (in the long-life milk) and promotes digestion.

Table 5. Lipid composition of cow milk and localization in the

physico-chemical fractions (g / 100 g fat) (FAO, 1998).

Lipid compositions Proportions Location

Triglycerides 96 - 98 fat globule
Di-glycerides 0.3-1.60 fat globule
Mono-glycerides 0.0-0.10 fat globule
Phospholipides 0.2-1.00 Fat globule membrane and
whey
Cerebrosides 0.0-0.08 Fat globule membrane

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 Steroides 0.2-0.40 fat globule
Free fatty acid 0.1-0.40 Fat globule membrane and
whey
Cholesterol esters Traces Fat globule membrane
Vitamin 0.1-0.20 fat globule

acids are lipid molecules containing at least one double bond, according to the structure of this or
of these double bonds. It is possible to distinguish the cis fatty acids and trans fatty acids. Most
unsaturated fats in our diet are in the cis form, and a lower proportion are in the trans form. The
fat content of goat milk is slightly greater than that of cow milk, in both cases; triglycerides
represent more than 95% of total lipids. Phospholipids comprise 30 to 40 mg/100 ml of cow milk
which contains 8 to 10 mg of lipid, cholesterol is from 10 to 20 mg per 100 ml, most of which is
in the free form (Table 5).

(I) Simple lipids

Simple lipids are composed mainly of triglycerides (98% fat), in small quantities, and of strides
and cerebrosides. Glycerides (neutral lipids) consist of triglycerides (98%), diglycerides (A1.5
0.2%) and monoglycerides (traces). Gravimetrically, glyceride fatty acids account for almost
90% of the fat. If over 400 compounds have been identified in bovine milk, only 15 of them are
present in substantial amounts (> 1% of total lipids). The origin of milk fatty acids is two-fold:
fatty acids with carbon chain lengths from 4 to 12 carbon atoms are synthesized by the mammary
gland from blood precursors, fatty acids with carbon chain lengths 18 (and more) carbon atoms
are directly collected in the blood plasma (they are derived from the diet, the fat reserves or
synthesis in tissues other than the mammary gland) and fatty acids and 16 to 14 carbon atoms is
derived from de novo synthesis by the udder or a levy in the bloodstream.

(II) The complex lipids

These lipids are complex with phosphorus and/or nitrogen. The most important are the
phospholipid, which account for only 1% of fat (0.3 to 0.5 g/l), but acts as a constituent of fat
globules and emulsion stabilizer. Their hydrophilic and lipophilic characteristics allow them to
form bridges between fatty and aqueous phases. So, we found both in the cream (about 60%) and
butter in skim milk (40%) or buttermilk (Table 8). There are three main phospholipids: lecithin,
Cephalin and Sphingomyelin. Approximately 85% of fatty acids constituting phospholipids are
long chain fatty acids. Other complex lipids present in minor amounts are gangliosides,
glycolipids and glycosphingolipids. The composition of milk fat varies greatly according to race
and feeding. It is presented in the form of small milk cells suspended in water, in goat milk, fat
consists of triglycerides and fatty acids, and are globular in shape with a variable diameter . The
milk fat globules are developed in the cells of the mammary secretory epithelium. Indeed, the

22
endoplasmic reticulum, where proteins are synthesized, and triglycerides; these triglycerides are
then accumulated in the form of small droplets in the cytoplasm. These lipid droplets are of 1 to
5 µm in diameter.

E. Minerals

They play an important role in the structural organization of casein micelles; the main minerals
present in milk are given in Table (9). The major salt constituents, potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium etc., are distinguished if the content is greater than 0.1 g per liter of those containing
trace amounts.

Fatty acids Nomenclature Averages

Saturated
Butyric C4 :0 3.6
Caproic C6 :0 2.3
Caprylic C8 :0 1.3
Capric C10 :0 2.7
Lauric C12 :0 3.3
Myristic C14 :0 10.7
Pentadecanoic C15 :0 1.2
Palmitic C16 :0 27.6
Stearic C18 :0 10.1
Arachidic C20 :0 0.2

Monounsaturated
Myristoleic C14 :1 1.4
Palmitoleic C16 :1 2.6
Oleic C18 :1 26.0

Polyunsaturated
unconjugated:
linolenic C18 :2 2.5
linolenic C18 :2 1.4
Arachidonic C20 :4 0.3
conjugates:
Diene C18 :2 0.8

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Table 8. Levels of phospholipids in cow's milk and dairy products (g / kg) (FAO, 1998).

Dairy Phospholipids
Whole milk 0.30-0.50
Skimmed milk 0.14-0.23
Whey 1.03-1.91
Cream 1.00-5.00
Butter 1.00-2.50
Cheese 1.00-2.00

Table 9. Different mineral content in cow's milk (Amiot et al., 2002

Minerals Na Mg P Cl K Ca Fe Cu Zu I
Content (ppm) 445 105 896 958 1500 1180 0.5 0.1 3.8 0.28

F. Vitamins

Levels of vitamin A, D and E are variable; depending on the season as there is a slight increase
during the pasture season (spring-summer). They are fat-soluble, so it is found in fat and can be
lost during skimming. Other vitamins are water soluble and are found in the serum. In the case of
ascorbic acid (C), it is present in small quantities in fresh milk and is destroyed by contact with
air and also during pasteurization. For cow milk, the milk processing techniques can significantly
change the amount of vitamin C.

G. Enzymes

Enzymes are specific globular proteins produced by living cells. Each enzyme has its isoelectric
point and is susceptible to various denaturing agents such as pH change, temperature, ionic
strength, organic solvent.

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Conclusion

Milk for human consumption must be properly collected from a healthy well fed female, be
colostrum free and not overworked. Milk production is not regular, the main causes of variations
are related to race and species, but also depends on individual factors related to the health,
nutrition, and age of the animal. Quantitatively, cow milk is the raw material most widely
produced and processed worldwide. However, the milk of other mammals - goats, sheep, buffalo,
and camel - is of significant importance in the economy of semi - arid regions, and especially
those of the Mediterranean basin.

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Reference

1. Boler, D. D., & Woerner, D. R. (2017). What is meat? A perspective from the American
Meat Science Association. Animal Frontiers, 7(4), 8-11.

2. Guetouache, M., Guessas, B., & Medjekal, S. (2014). Composition and nutritional value
of raw milk. J Issues Biol Sci Pharm Res, 2350, 1588.

3. Réhault-Godbert, S., Guyot, N., & Nys, Y. (2019). The golden egg: nutritional value,
bioactivities, and emerging benefits for human health. Nutrients, 11(3), 684.

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